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Understanding criminal procedure. Volume 1, Investigation / Joshua Dressler, Alan C. Michaels, and Ric Simmons.
Dressler, Joshua, author.; Michaels, Alan C., author.; Simmons, Ric, author.
2017
KF9619 .D74 2017 (Map It)
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Author
Dressler, Joshua, author.
Title
Understanding criminal procedure. Volume 1, Investigation / Joshua Dressler, Alan C. Michaels, and Ric Simmons.
Published
Durham, North Carolina : Carolina Academic Press, [2017]
Call Number
KF9619 .D74 2017
Edition
Seventh edition.
ISBN
9781611639360 (alk. paper)
1611639360 (alk. paper)
9781611639926 (eISBN)
Description
xxviii, 602 pages ; 26 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)983796148
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Series
Understanding series (New York, N.Y.)
Other Editions
Revision of: Dressler, Joshua. Understanding criminal procedure. Volume 1, Investigation. Sixth edition. New Providence, NJ : LexisNexis, [2013] 9780769862989 (DLC) 2013008760
Record Appears in
Onsite Print Resources
Shared Records
All Resources
Gift
Purchased from the income of the Edith L. Fisch Fund
Added Author
Michaels, Alan C., author.
Simmons, Ric, author.
Gift
The Arthur W. Diamond Law Library
Purchased from the income of the Edith L. Fisch Fund
Preface
xxvii
ch. 1
Introduction to Criminal Procedure
3
1.01.
Relationship of "Criminal Law" to "Criminal Procedure"
3
1.02.
Sources of Procedural Law
4
A.
Formal Sources
4
B.
Informal Sources: A Taste of Reality
6
1.03.
Stages of a Criminal Prosecution
7
A.
In General
7
B.
Investigatory Stage
7
1.
Search and Seizure
7
2.
Interrogation
8
3.
Identification Procedures
8
4.
Arrest
8
C.
Adjudicatory Stage
8
1.
Issuance of a Complaint
8
2.
Probable Cause (Gerstein) Hearing
9
3.
First Appearance Before the Magistrate
9
4.
Preliminary Hearings and Grand Jury Proceedings
10
5.
Arraignment
11
6.
Pretrial Motions
11
7.
Trial
11
8.
Sentencing and Post-Trial Proceedings
12
a.
Sentencing
12
b.
Appeal
12
c.
Collateral Attack of a Conviction: Habeas Corpus
13
1.04.
Studying Constitutional Law Cases
14
A.
Read Concurring and Dissenting Opinions
14
B.
Learn Case Names
14
C.
Count Votes
15
D.
Learn the Views of Individual Justices
15
E.
Be Sensitive to Supreme Court History
16
ch. 2
Overarching Policy Issues in Criminal Procedure
21
2.01.
Norms of the Criminal Process
21
2.02.
Alternative Models of Criminal Justice
22
A.
Overview
22
B.
Crime Control Model of Criminal Justice
23
C.
Due Process Model of Criminal Justice
24
2.03.
Role of "Truth" in the Criminal Justice System
26
2.04.
Accusatorial Versus Inquisitorial Systems of Justice
28
2.05.
Race, Gender, and Economic Class in the Law
30
2.06.
Who Should Devise the Rules of Criminal Procedure?
32
2.07.
Formulating the Rules of Criminal Procedure: Some Overarching Controversies
33
A.
Bright-Line Rules versus Case-by-Case Adjudication
33
B.
Subjectivity versus Objectivity: Rule-Making to Avoid Pretextual Conduct
36
ch. 3
Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
39
3.01.
Incorporation: Overview
39
A.
Nature of the Issue
39
B.
Importance of the Debate
40
3.02.
Incorporation Theories
41
A.
Full Incorporation
41
B.
Fundamental Rights
41
C.
Full-Incorporation-Plus
42
D.
Selective Incorporation
42
3.03.
Incorporation Debate
43
A.
Overview of the Debate
43
B.
What Did the Framers Intend?
43
C.
Textual Claims: What Does "Due Process" Mean?
44
D.
Which Doctrine Is More Libertarian?
44
E.
Which Theory Is Structurally Preferable?
44
3.04.
Which Theory Has "Won" The Debate?
45
ch. 4
Fourth Amendment: Overview
47
4.01.
Warning before Beginning the Fourth Amendment Journey
47
4.02.
Text and Some (Hopefully) Useful Initial Observations
48
4.03.
What Does the Fourth Amendment Seek to Protect?: An Overview
49
A.
Supreme Court's View
49
B.
Reflections of Some Scholars
51
4.04.
Some Things to Know at the Outset
52
A.
Standing to Raise Fourth Amendment Claims
52
B.
Exclusionary Rule
53
C.
Pretrial Nature of Fourth Amendment Issues
53
D.
"Private" Searches and Seizures
54
E.
"Silver Platter" Doctrine
55
F.
Who Are "the People" Protected by the Fourth Amendment?
55
4.05.
Fourth Amendment Checklist
57
ch. 5
Fourth Amendment: "Persons, Houses, Papers, and Effects"
61
5.01.
Significance of the Constitutional Phrase
61
5.02.
"Persons"
61
5.03.
"Houses"
62
5.04.
"Papers and Effects"
62
ch. 6
Fourth Amendment Terminology: "Search"
65
6.01.
Why "Search" Law Matters
65
A.
Constitutional Significance of the Term "Search"
65
B.
Important Question for Further Consideration
66
6.02.
"Search": Original "Trespass" Analysis
66
6.03.
"Search": Katz v. United States and the "Privacy" Analysis
68
A.
Overview
68
B.
Majority Opinion: In Search of a New Test
68
C.
Concurring Opinion: A New "Search" Test
69
D.
Analysis and Critique of the Katz Test
70
1.
Overview
70
2.
Should We Have the Subjective Prong?
71
3.
Objective Prong: What Precisely Is the Standard?
72
E.
Jones and the Resurrection of the "Trespass" Test
75
6.04.
Post-Katz "Search" Jurisprudence: An Overview
77
A.
What Has Katz Wrought?
77
1.
Subjective Prong
77
2.
Objective Prong
78
B.
Lurking Issues
79
6.05.
Surveillance of Conversations by "False Friends"
80
A.
"False Friends" versus Katz
80
B.
False Friends
81
C.
"Wired" False Friends
82
6.06.
Open Fields
83
A.
Rule and Rationale
83
B.
"Open Field" versus "Curtilage"
84
C.
Criticism of the Open-Fields Doctrine
86
6.07.
Aerial Surveillance
87
A.
Rule
87
B.
Surveillance by Airplanes
87
C.
Surveillance by Helicopters
88
6.08.
Inspection of Garbage
90
6.09.
Use of Dogs and Other "Binary" Investigative Techniques to Discover Contraband
91
A.
In General
91
B.
Dog-Sniffs
91
C.
Beyond Dogs
94
6.10.
Technological Information Gathering
95
A.
In General
95
B.
Pen Registers, Metadata, and the Third Party Doctrine
99
C.
Electronic Tracking Devices: The "Beeper Cases"
102
D.
Massive Data Collection and the Mosaic Theory
103
E.
Computers and Electronic Transmissions
105
F.
Cell Phone Information
107
ch. 7
Fourth Amendment Terminology: "Seizure"
109
7.01.
Constitutional Significance of the Term "Seizure"
109
7.02.
Seizure of Property
109
A.
General Rule
109
B.
Special Issue: Installation of Electronic Devices on or in Personal Property
110
7.03.
Seizure of Persons
111
A.
Overview
111
B.
Terry Definition
112
C.
Mendenhall "Reasonable Person" Test
112
1.
In General
112
2.
Some Applications of the Test
113
a.
Seizure by Questioning?
113
b.
Factory Sweeps
114
c.
Bus Sweeps
115
3.
Issue of Importance: The Nature of the "Reasonable Person"
116
D.
Embellishment on the Terry-Mendenhall Test: The Submission-to-Authority Problem
118
ch. 8
Fourth Amendment: "Probable Cause"
121
8.01.
Constitutional Role of "Probable Cause"
121
8.02.
Probable Cause: General Principles
122
A.
"Probable Cause": Definition
122
B.
"Probable Cause": Objective versus Subjective
122
C.
"Probable Cause": Arrests versus Searches
123
D.
"Probable Cause": With or Without Warrants
123
E.
"Probable Cause": Search for and Seize What?
124
F.
Special Issue: "Probable Cause" and Pretextual Police Conduct
125
8.03.
Determining "Probable Cause": Overview
127
A.
Types of Information: In General
127
B.
"Bald and Unilluminating" Assertions
127
C.
Direct Information
128
D.
Hearsay ("Informant") Information
128
8.04.
Aguilar Two-Pronged Test
129
A.
In General
129
B.
Basis-of-Knowledge Prong
130
1.
In General
130
2.
"Self-Verifying Detail"
130
C.
Veracity Prong
131
D.
Corroboration
132
8.05.
Gates "Totality of the Circumstances" Test
133
A.
Test Explained
133
B.
Criticism of Gates
134
8.06.
Probable Cause in "Administrative Searches": The Reasonableness Standard and the Camara Principle
136
8.07.
How Probable Is "Probable Cause"?
137
A.
Governing Law
137
B.
Reflections on the Issue
139
C.
"Probable Cause" as a Sliding Scale?
141
1.
Is There a Sliding Scale?
141
2.
Should There Be a Sliding Scale?
142
ch. 9
Arrests
145
9.01.
"Arrest": Overview
145
A.
Definition
145
B.
"Arrest" versus "Seizure"
145
9.02.
Arrests: Common Law and Statutory Arrest Rules
146
9.03.
Custodial Arrests for Minor Offenses
146
9.04.
Grounds for Arrest: "Stop and Identify" Statutes
149
9.05.
Arrest Warrants: Constitutional Law
150
A.
Overview
150
1.
General Rules
150
2.
How Arrest Warrant Issues Arise
150
B.
Arrest in a Public Place: The No-Warrant Rule
151
C.
Arrest in the Arrestee's Home: The Warrant-Requirement Rule
152
1.
In General
152
2.
Scope of the Rule
153
a.
"Home" versus "Public Place"
153
b.
Exigencies Justifying Warrantless Entry
154
D.
Arrest in a Third Person's Home
156
9.06.
Beyond Warrants: Executing an Arrest
157
A.
Arrests in the Home: When and How Entry of the Residence Is Permitted
157
B.
Force in Making an Arrest
157
9.07.
Beyond Warrants: Use of Force after Arrest
159
ch. 10
Search Warrants: In General
161
10.01.
Constitutional Role of Search Warrants: The Debate
161
A.
Nature and Significance of the Debate
161
B.
Substance of the Debate
162
1.
Historical Debate
162
2.
Policy Debate
164
C.
Who Has "Won" the Debate?
166
10.02.
Warrant Application Process
168
10.03.
Search Warrant Requirements
169
A.
"Neutral and Detached Magistrate"
169
B.
"Oath or Affirmation"
170
C.
"Particularity"
171
1.
In General
171
2.
"Place to be Searched"
171
3.
"Persons or Things to be Seized"
172
10.04.
Execution of Search Warrants
173
A.
In Anticipation of Execution
173
B.
Time of Execution
173
C.
Means of Entry
174
1.
Knock-and-Announce Rule
174
2.
Exceptions to Rule
175
3.
After the Knock: What Then?
175
D.
Search of Persons While Executing a Warrant
176
1.
In Premises Open to the Public
176
2.
In Private Homes
177
E.
Detention of Persons During Searches
178
F.
Scope of the Search
180
ch. 11
Warrantless Searches: Exigent Circumstances
181
11.01.
Exigency Exception: Explained
181
11.02.
Intrusions Inside the Human Body
183
11.03.
External Searches of the Body
184
11.04.
Entry and Search of a Home
185
ch. 12
Searches Incident to Lawful Arrests
189
12.01.
Warrant Exception: In General
189
A.
Rule
189
B.
Rationale of the Warrant Exception
189
C.
Probable Cause
190
1.
For the Search
190
2.
For the Seizure of Evidence
191
12.02.
Warrant Exception: In Greater Detail
191
A.
Arrest
191
1.
"Full Custodial"
191
2.
Lawfulness of the Arrest
192
B.
Contemporaneousness of the Search
193
1.
Area within Arrestee's Immediate Control
193
2.
Closets and Other Spaces Adjoining the Place of Arrest
193
3.
Of the Person
193
C.
Scope of the Search
194
1.
Search of the Person
194
2.
Area within the Arrestee's Immediate Control
195
a.
In General
195
b.
Automobiles
196
3.
Protective Searches for Dangerous Persons
196
4.
DNA Swabs: Maryland v. King
196
12.03.
Chimel v. California: Setting the Rule's Contours
198
12.04.
United States v. Robinson: The Traffic Arrest Case
200
A.
Holding
200
B.
Robinson versus Chimel
201
12.05.
Searches of Automobiles Incident to Arrest
202
A.
New York v. Belton
202
B.
Change Comes: Arizona v. Gant
204
12.06.
Riley v. California: The Cell Phone Case
206
ch. 13
Searches of Cars and Containers Therein
209
13.01.
Automobile Search Warrant Exception: General Rules
209
A.
Important Overview
209
B.
Searches "At the Scene"
210
C.
Searches "Away from the Scene"
211
D.
Probable Cause Requirement
211
13.02.
Automobile Search Warrant Exception: The "Mobility" Rationale
212
A.
Carroll v. United States: True Mobility
212
B.
Chambers v. Maroney: A Controversial View of "Mobility"
213
C.
Coolidge v. New Hampshire: Departing from Chambers
215
13.03.
Automobile Search Warrant Exception: Lesser Privacy, a New Rationale
216
13.04.
California v. Carney: The Mobility and Lesser-Expectation- of-Privacy Rationales at Work
218
13.05.
Special Problem: Search of Containers Found in Cars
219
A.
Clarification of the Issue
219
1.
In General
219
2.
What is a "Container"?
219
B.
General Rule
220
C.
How the Container Rules Developed
221
1.
United States v. Chadwick
221
2.
Arkansas v. Sanders
223
3.
United States v. Ross
224
4.
California v. Acevedo
225
5.
What Is Left of Chadwick?
227
ch. 14
"Plain View" and Related Doctrines
229
14.01.
Plain View: General Principles
229
A.
Elements of the Doctrine
229
B.
Rationale of the Doctrine
229
14.02.
"Plain View": Examining the Elements in Detail
230
A.
Element 1: Lawful Vantage Point
230
B.
Element 2: Right of Access to the Object
231
C.
Element 3: Right to Seize is "Immediately Apparent"
231
14.03.
Plain View Doctrine at Work: Arizona v. Hicks
232
14.04.
"Inadvertent Discovery": The Plain View Debate
234
14.05.
Expanding on Plain View: Use of Other Senses
236
A.
"Plain Hearing" and "Plain Smell" Doctrines
236
B.
"Plain Touch" (or "Plain Feel") Doctrine
236
ch. 15
Inventory Searches
239
15.01.
Automobile Inventories
239
A.
General Principles
239
B.
Inventory Exception: In Detail
241
1.
Administrative Non-Pretextual Nature of the Search
241
2.
"Routine" Nature of the Inventory
242
a.
In General
242
b.
Nondiscretionary Inventories
242
c.
Discretionary Inventories
243
3.
Automobile Owner's Wishes
243
4.
Scope of an Inventory
243
a.
Containers
243
b.
Locked Portions of the Automobile
244
c.
Inspection of Papers
244
15.02.
Arrest Inventories
245
ch. 16
Consent Searches
247
16.01.
Preliminary Observations: Pragmatism, the Police, and the Supreme Court
247
16.02.
Consent Searches: General Principles
249
A.
General Rule
249
B.
Rationale for the Rule
249
1.
Waiver?
249
2.
Consent = No Search?
250
3.
Reasonableness?
250
16.03.
Voluntary Consent
251
A.
Voluntariness: In General
251
B.
Claim of Authority by the Police
252
C.
Police Deception
253
D.
Awareness of Fourth Amendment Rights
254
16.04.
Scope of Search
256
16.05.
Third-Party Consent
257
16.06.
"Apparent Authority"
261
ch. 17
Terry v. Ohio: The "Reasonableness" Balancing Standard in Criminal Investigations
263
17.01.
Terry v. Ohio: An Overview to a Landmark Case
263
17.02.
Terry v. Ohio: The Opinion
265
A.
Majority Opinion
265
B.
Justice Harlan's Concurring Opinion
269
17.03.
"Reasonable Suspicion"
270
A.
In General
270
B.
Types of Information
271
1.
Overview
271
2.
Hearsay: When It Is and Is Not Sufficient
272
3.
Drug-Courier Profiles
275
4.
Flight in "High-Crime Areas"
277
5.
Reflections on the Role of Race and Other Suspect Classifications in Determining "Reasonable Suspicion"
279
17.04.
Distinguishing a "Terry Stop" from an Arrest
282
A.
Overview to the Issue
282
B.
Length of the Detention
282
C.
Forcible Movement of the Suspect
283
1.
In General
283
2.
Special Problem: Removal from an Automobile After a Lawful Stop
284
D.
Existence of "Less Intrusive Means"
285
17.05.
Grounds for "Terry Stops"
286
A.
Crime Prevention versus Crime Detection
286
B.
Nature of the Offense
286
C.
Fingerprinting
287
17.06.
Weapons Searches: Of Persons
287
A.
Permissibility
287
B.
Method
288
1.
Pat-Down (Frisk)
288
2.
After the Pat-Down
289
17.07.
Extending Terry: Weapons Searches of Automobiles
289
17.08.
Extending Terry: Protective Sweeps of Residences
290
17.09.
Extending Terry: Temporary Seizures of Property
292
ch. 18
More "Reasonableness" Balancing: Searches and Seizures Primarily Conducted for Non-Criminal Law Purposes
293
18.01.
Overview
293
18.02.
Administrative Searches
294
18.03.
International Border Searches and Seizures
296
A.
At the Border
296
B.
Near the Border
297
1.
In General
297
2.
Roving Border Patrols
297
3.
Fixed Interior Checkpoints
298
18.04.
Automobile Inspections and Checkpoints
299
A.
Automobile License and Vehicle Registration Inspections
299
B.
Automobile Checkpoints
300
1.
Sobriety Checkpoints
300
2.
Anti-Drug, Anti-Crime, Anti-Terrorism (and Still Other) Checkpoints
303
18.05.
"Special Needs" Searches and Seizures
306
A.
In General
306
B.
Searches of Persons, Personal Property, and Premises
307
1.
Searches Directed at Public School Students
307
2.
Searches Directed at Public Employees
309
3.
Searches Directed at Probationers
310
C.
Drug and Alcohol Testing
311
1.
Fourth Amendment Factors in Evaluating Testing
311
2.
Approved Testing
311
a.
Public Employees
311
b.
Public School Students
313
3.
Disapproved Testing
315
ch. 19
Fourth Amendment: Standing
319
19.01.
Role of "Standing" in Fourth Amendment Law
319
A.
In General
319
B.
Is "Standing" a Separate Concept?
320
19.02.
Rationale of the Standing Requirement
321
19.03.
Law of Standing: Pre-Rakas v. Illinois
323
A.
In General
323
B.
Automatic Standing
324
19.04.
Standing to Contest a Search: Rakas v. Illinois
325
A.
New Approach
325
B.
Impact of Rakas: A Closer Look
327
1.
Search of Another Person's Residence
328
a.
When the Owner or Lessor is Absent
328
b.
When the Owner or Lessor is Present
328
2.
Search of One's Own Automobile When Absent
330
3.
Search of Another Person's Automobile
331
a.
When the Owner Is Absent
331
b.
When the Owner Is Present
331
4.
Contesting a Search Resulting in the Seizure of One's Own Property
332
19.05.
Standing to Contest a Seizure: Post-Rakas
334
ch. 20
Fourth Amendment: Exclusionary Rule
337
20.01.
Historical Development of the Fourth Amendment Exclusionary Rule
337
A.
Rights versus Remedies
337
B.
Federal Exclusionary Rule: Weeks v. United States
337
C.
Exclusionary Rule for the States?
338
1.
Step 1: Wolf v. Colorado
338
2.
Step 2: Rochin v. California and Its Progeny
338
3.
Step 3: Mapp v. Ohio
340
20.02.
Rationale of the Exclusionary Rule
341
20.03.
Is the Exclusionary Rule Constitutionally Required?
342
20.04.
Exclusionary Rule: Should It Be Abolished?
344
A.
Political and Historical Overview
344
B.
Is There Historical Foundation for the Exclusionary Rule?
345
C.
Does the Exclusionary Rule Deter Constitutional Violations?
346
D.
Is the Rule (Even If It Deters) Worth Its Cost?
349
1.
Should This Question Even Be Asked?
349
2.
"Costs"
350
a.
Rule Protects the Wrong People
350
b.
Rule Promotes Cynicism
351
c.
Rule Results in Disproportionate Punishment
352
E.
Are There Better Remedies?
353
20.05.
When the Exclusionary Rule Does Not Apply: In General
354
A.
Non-Criminal Proceedings
355
1.
In General
355
2.
Habeas Corpus
355
B.
Criminal Proceedings
356
1.
Non-Trial Proceedings
356
2.
At a Criminal Trial
356
a.
Impeachment Exception
356
b.
Knock-and-Announce Exception
357
20.06.
When the Exclusionary Rule Does Not Apply: The Police Culpability Factor
359
A.
Historical Overview
359
B.
Culpability Approach in its Infancy: United States v. Leon
360
1.
"Good Faith" Rule
360
2.
"Good Faith": What Does This Mean?
360
3.
When "Good Faith" Does Not Exist
361
a.
In General
361
b.
Improperly Executed Warrants
362
4.
Why the Exception?: The Reasoning of Leon
362
C.
Warrantless Searches: Moving Beyond Leon
364
1.
Warrantless Searches Authorized by Statute
364
2.
Computer Databases
364
a.
Reliance on Court-Managed Databases
364
b.
Reliance on Police-Managed Databases
365
3.
Reliance on Binding Precedent
367
20.07.
"Fruit of the Poisonous Tree" Doctrine
369
A.
Warning: Hudson v. Michigan
369
B.
Conceptual Overview
370
1.
General Principles
370
2.
Identifying the Poisonous Tree
370
C.
Independent Source Doctrine
371
D.
Inevitable Discovery Rule
374
E.
Attenuated Connection Principle (The Wong Sun Rule)
375
1.
Overview
375
2.
Attenuation Factors: The "Protected Interest" Limitation
375
3.
Other Attenuation Factors
376
a.
Temporal Proximity
376
b.
Intervening Events
376
c.
Flagrancy of the Violation
378
d.
Nature of the Derivative Evidence
378
ch. 21
Interrogation Law: Overview
381
21.01.
Reflections on Modern Interrogation Law
381
21.02.
Police Interrogation Techniques: Historically and at Present
382
21.03.
Interrogation Law: Constitutional Issues
384
A.
Was the Confession Obtained Involuntarily (or by Coercion)?
384
1.
Due Process Clause
384
2.
Fifth Amendment Compulsory Self-Incrimination Clause
384
B.
Was the Confession Obtained in Violation of Miranda v. Arizona?
385
C.
Was the Defendant Entitled to Counsel?
385
1.
Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel
385
2.
"Miranda" Right to Counsel
386
21.04.
Interrogation Law: An Overview to the Policy Debate
386
A.
Societal Ambivalence Regarding Confessions
386
1.
Why the Public Favors Confessions
386
2.
Why the Public Is Concerned About Confessions
387
B.
Has the Law Gone Far Enough-or Too Far- in Controlling Confessions?
387
C.
Questions to Think About
389
ch. 22
Interrogation Law: Due Process Clause
391
22.01.
Historical Development
391
A.
Common Law
391
B.
Constitutional Law
392
22.02.
Due Process Clause: The Voluntariness Requirement
393
A.
General Principles
393
1.
Rule
393
2.
Rationale of the Voluntariness Requirement
393
B.
Voluntariness Requirement in Greater Detail
395
1.
Critical Overview
395
2.
Some Reflections on the Use of Torture in the Post-9/11 World
397
3.
"Voluntariness": Factors
398
a.
Actual or Threatened Use of Physical Force
398
b.
Psychological Pressures
399
c.
Promises of Leniency and Threats of Harsh Legal Treatment
400
d.
Deception
401
22.03.
Due Process Clause: Remedies for Violation of the Right
402
A.
Requirement of State Action (Official Overreaching)
402
B.
Standing to Raise an Involuntary Confession Claim
403
C.
Exclusionary Rule
403
1.
Constitutional Basis of the Exclusionary Rule
403
2.
Scope of the Exclusionary Rule
404
a.
Impeachment
404
b.
Fruit-of-the-Poisonous-Tree Doctrine
404
3.
Wrongful Admission of Statement at Trial
404
ch. 23
Interrogation Law: Privilege against Compelled Self-Incrimination
405
23.01.
Fifth Amendment Self-Incrimination Clause: Overview
405
23.02.
Origins of the Privilege against Self-Incrimination
406
23.03.
Is the Privilege a Good Idea? The Controversy
408
A.
In General
408
B.
Modern Debate
409
1.
"Cruel Trilemma" Thesis
409
2.
Compelled Self-Accusation as a Moral Wrong
410
3.
Privilege as a Critical Component of the Adversary System
411
4.
Protection of the Innocent
412
23.04.
Fifth Amendment Privilege: The Elements
413
A.
"No Person"
414
B.
"Shall Be Compelled"
414
C.
"In Any Criminal Case"
415
D.
"To Be a Witness Against Himself"
416
1.
What Makes a Person a "Witness"
416
a.
"Testimonial or Communicative" Evidence: The Rule
416
b.
Application of the Rule
417
c.
Closer Look at the Rule: Pennsylvania v. Muniz
418
2.
Seriousness of the Threat of Incrimination
418
23.05.
Privilege against Self-Incrimination in the Police Interrogation Context
420
A.
General Principles
420
1.
Original, Bright-Line Approach
420
2.
Modern Totality-of-Circumstances Test: Two Constitutional Provisions (and Standards) Become One
421
B.
Remedies for Violation of the Fifth Amendment Privilege
423
1.
Requirement of State Action
423
2.
Standing to Raise Claim
423
3.
Exclusionary Rule
423
a.
Constitutional Basis of the Exclusionary Rule
423
b.
Scope of the Exclusionary Rule
424
ch. 24
Interrogation Law: Miranda v. Arizona
427
24.01.
Miranda: A Brief Overview and Some Reflections
427
24.02.
Miranda: Placing the Case in Historical Context
428
24.03.
Road to Miranda: Escobedo v. Illinois
430
24.04.
Miranda: The Case
432
A.
Facts
432
B.
Holding
432
1.
What Rights Does a Suspect Have in the Interrogation Room?
432
a.
Self-Incrimination
432
b.
Right to Counsel
432
2.
Procedural Safeguards: The "Miranda Warnings"
433
3.
Waiver of a Suspect's "Miranda Rights"
434
a.
In General
434
b.
Voluntariness of the Waiver
434
c.
Intelligence of the Waiver
434
4.
Enforcing the Rights
434
a.
Privilege Against Self-Incrimination
434
b.
Right to Counsel
434
C.
Reasoning of the Court
435
1.
Custodial Interrogation As "Compulsion"
435
2.
Limited Importance of Confessions in Law Enforcement
436
3.
Fifth Amendment Values and the Importance of the Adversarial System
436
24.05.
Criticisms of Miranda
437
A.
"Miranda Did Not Go Far Enough"
437
B.
"Miranda Went Too Far"
438
1.
"Miranda Lacks Historical and Textual Support"
438
2.
"The Rule Is Unnecessary and Irrational"
438
3.
"Miranda is Anti-Confession and Pro-Fox Hunt"
439
4.
"Miranda Is Injurious to Law Enforcement"
441
24.06.
Is Miranda a Constitutionally Based Decision?
443
A.
Act 1: Congress and Miranda
443
B.
Act 2: Miranda as a "Prophylactic Rule"
444
C.
Act 3: Miranda is (Sort of) Re-Constitutionalized
445
1.
Dickerson v. United States
445
2.
Dickerson's Significance
446
24.07.
Meaning of Miranda: "Custody"
447
A.
General Principles
447
B.
Commonly Asked "Custody" Questions
449
1.
Does "Focus" Equal "Custody"?
449
2.
Does Miranda Apply Outside the Police Station?
449
3.
Does Miranda Apply to Minor Offenses?
450
4.
Does Miranda Apply to a "Terry Stop"?
451
5.
Are Miranda Warnings Required in All "Coercive Environments"?
451
24.08.
Meaning of Miranda: "Interrogation"
452
A.
In General
452
1.
Rule
452
2.
Closer Look at the Rule
452
B.
When Is an Interrogation Not a Miranda "Interrogation"?
453
24.09.
Adequacy of Miranda Warnings
454
24.10.
Waiver of Miranda Rights
455
A.
In General
455
1.
Overview
455
2.
Types of Waiver: Express versus Implied
456
3.
Elements of a Valid Waiver
457
a.
Generally
457
b.
Voluntariness of the Waiver
457
c.
Knowing and Intelligent Waiver
458
4.
Moran v. Burbine: Waiver in the Post-Miranda Era (Part 1)
459
5.
Berghuis v. Thompkins: Waiver in the Post-Miranda Era (Part 2)
460
B.
Waiver Law: If a Suspect Invokes His Rights
461
1.
Overview
461
2.
Right to Remain Silent
462
3.
Right to Counsel
462
a.
Edwards v. Arizona Rule
462
b.
When the Edwards Rule Does Not Apply
464
24.11.
Custodial Interrogation: When Miranda Warnings Are Not Required
466
A.
Public-Safety Exception
466
B.
Covert Custodial Interrogation
468
C.
Routine-Booking-Questions Exception
469
24.12.
Scope of the Miranda Exclusionary Rule
469
A.
Impeachment Exception
469
B.
Fruit-of-the-Poisonous-Tree Doctrine
470
1.
In General
470
2.
Tentative Start: Michigan v. Tucker
471
3.
Expanding on Tucker: Oregon v. Elstad and United States v. Patane
472
4.
When a "Fruit" May be Inadmissible: Missouri v. Seibert
475
ch. 25
Interrogation Law: Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel
479
25.01.
Massiah v. United States
479
A.
Historical Overview
479
B.
Massiah: The Opinion
480
C.
Making Sense of Massiah: The Sixth Amendment Role of Counsel
481
25.02.
Sixth Amendment (Massiah) Right to Counsel: Summary
484
25.03.
Procedural Initiation of the Right to Counsel: Adversary Judicial Proceedings
485
25.04.
"Offense-Specific" Nature of the Right to Counsel
487
25.05.
Requirement of "Deliberate Elicitation"
489
A.
"Deliberate Elicitation" versus "Interrogation"
489
B.
What Does "Deliberate" Mean?
490
1.
"Deliberate" as "Purposeful"
490
2.
"Deliberate" As Meaning Something Less Than "Purposeful"?
491
C.
What Is "Elicitation"?
493
25.06.
Waiver of the Right to Counsel
494
A.
General Principles
494
B.
Court's First Waiver Case: Brewer v. Williams
494
C.
Seeking Waiver
496
D.
Elements of a Valid Waiver
498
1.
"Voluntary"
498
2.
"Knowing and Intelligent"
498
25.07.
Scope of the Sixth Amendment Exclusionary Rule
499
A.
Right or Remedy?
499
B.
When the Police Investigate "Sixth Amendment" and "Non-Sixth Amendment" Offenses
500
C.
Use of Evidence for Impeachment Purposes
501
D.
Fruit-of-the-Poisonous-Tree Doctrine
502
25.08.
Right-to-Counsel Summary: Sixth Amendment versus Miranda
502
ch. 26
Eyewitness Identification Procedures
505
26.01.
Eyewitness Identification: The Problem and Potential Safeguards
505
A.
Problem
505
1.
Overview of the Problem
505
2.
Details of the Problem
506
B.
Non-Constitutional Reform Measures
508
26.02.
Corporeal Identification Procedures: Right to Counsel
510
A.
Rule
510
B.
How the Rule Developed
511
1.
Start: United States v. Wade
511
2.
Turning Away from Wade: Kirby v. Illinois
511
C.
Role of Counsel in the Identification Process
512
26.03.
Non-Corporeal Identification Procedures: Right to Counsel
513
26.04.
Identification Procedures: Due Process of Law
514
ch. 27
Entrapment
517
27.01.
Entrapment: In General
517
27.02.
Entrapment: The Subjective Test
518
A.
Rule
518
1.
In General
518
2.
Proving Predisposition
518
B.
Rationale of the Rule
521
C.
Procedural Features of the Rule
522
27.03.
Entrapment: The Objective Test
522
A.
Rule
522
B.
Rationale of the Rule
523
C.
Procedural Features of the Rule
523
27.04.
Entrapment: The Debate
524
A.
Overview
524
B.
Criticisms of the Subjective Test
524
1.
"The Legislative Intent Rationale is Fictional"
524
2.
"The Subjective Test Acquits Culpable Persons"
525
3.
"The Subjective Test Is Unfair"
525
C.
Criticisms of the Objective Test
526
1.
"The Test Leads to Inappropriate Results"
526
2.
"The Test's Stated Rationales are Indefensible"
526
27.05.
Entrapment: Due Process
526
ch. 28
Right to Counsel: At Trial and on Appeal
529
28.01.
Overview: The Importance of Defense Lawyers in the Adversary System
529
28.02.
When the Right to Counsel Applies
529
28.03.
Right to Counsel: At Trial
531
A.
Right to Employ Counsel
531
B.
Indigents: The Right to Appointed Counsel
531
1.
Overview
531
2.
Road to Gideon
532
a.
Powell v. Alabama
532
b.
Johnson v. Zerbst
533
c.
Betts v. Brady
533
3.
Gideon v. Wainwright
534
4.
Post-Gideon Law: The Misdemeanor Cases
535
a.
Argersinger v. Hamlin
535
b.
Scott v. Illinois
537
c.
Alabama v. Shelton
538
d.
Two More Cases: Nichols and Gagnon
539
5.
Implementing the Right to Appointed Counsel
540
28.04.
Right to Counsel: On Appeal
542
A.
Inapplicability of the Sixth Amendment
542
B.
First Appeal (as of Right)
543
1.
In General
543
2.
Special Problem: Frivolous Appeals
544
C.
Subsequent (Discretionary) Appeals
545
D.
First (Discretionary) Appeal After a Guilty Plea
546
28.05.
Right of Self-Representation
547
A.
Defense: Who is In Charge?
547
B.
Faretta v. California
548
1.
Recognition of the Right
548
2.
Reflections on Faretta
549
3.
Current Status of Faretta
550
C.
Procedural Issues
552
1.
Competence
552
2.
Making the Choice of Self-Representation
553
3.
Timeliness of the Request
553
4.
Hybrid Representation
554
5.
Standby Counsel
554
6.
Legal Significance of Poor Self-Representation
554
7.
Legal Effect of an Erroneous Denial of the Right
555
28.06.
Right to Representation by One's Preferred Attorney
555
A.
In General
555
B.
Special Problem: Seizing Lawyers' Fees
556
28.07.
Interference with the Right to Counsel
558
28.08.
Effective Assistance of Counsel: General Principles
559
A.
Nature of the Issue
559
B.
"Ineffective Assistance": The Strickland Test
561
1.
Overview
561
2.
First Prong: Deficiency of Representation
562
a.
Standard
562
b.
Deficiency: Supreme Court Case Law
563
3.
Second Prong: Prejudice
567
a.
Standard
567
b.
Prejudice: Supreme Court Case Law
568
c.
Prejudice: Special Problems
571
28.09.
Effective Assistance of Counsel: Conflicts of Interest
574
A.
Nature of the Issue
574
B.
Pretrial Procedures to Avoid Conflicts
574
C.
Post-Trial Proof of a Conflict
575
D.
Waiver of the Right to Conflict-Free Representation
576
28.10.
Effective Assistance: The Role of Ethical Canons
577
Table of Cases
579
Index
595

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