Understanding criminal law / Joshua Dressler.
2012
KF9219 .D74 2012 (Map It)
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Details
Author
Title
Understanding criminal law / Joshua Dressler.
Published
New Providence, NJ : LexisNexis, 2012.
Call Number
KF9219 .D74 2012
Edition
Sixth edition.
Portion of Title
Criminal law
ISBN
9780769848938 (pbk.)
0769848931 )pbk.)
0769848931 )pbk.)
Description
xxxvii, 596 pages, 37 unnumbered pages ; 25 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)778245035
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Record Appears in
Gift
Purchased from the income of the Edith L. Fisch Fund
Gift
The Arthur W. Diamond Law Library
Purchased from the income of the Edith L. Fisch Fund
Table of Contents
ch. 1
Criminal Law: An Overview
1
[§] 1.01
Nature Of "Criminal Law"
1
[A].
Crimes
1
[1].
Comparison to Civil Wrongs
1
[2].
Classification of Crimes
3
[B].
Principles of Criminal Responsibility
3
[§] 1.02
Proving Guilt at the Trial
4
[A].
Right to Trial by Jury
4
[1].
In General
4
[2].
Scope of the Right
4
[B].
Burden of Proof
5
[C].
Jury Nullification
5
[1].
The Issue
5
[2].
The Debate
6
[3].
The Law
7
[4].
Race-Based Nullification
8
ch. 2
Principles of Criminal Punishment
11
[§] 2.01
"Punishment" and Criminal Law Theory
11
[§] 2.02
"Punishment": Defined
12
[A].
In General
12
[B].
Constitutional Law Analysis
13
[§] 2.03
Theories of Punishment
14
[A].
Utilitarianism
14
[1].
Basic Principles
14
[2].
Forms of Utilitarianism
15
[B].
Retributivism
16
[1].
Basic Principles
16
[2].
Forms of Retributivism
17
[C].
Denunciation (Expressive Theory)
18
[§] 2.04
The Debate Between the Competing Theories
19
[A].
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
19
[1].
Deterrence
19
[2].
Rehabilitation
20
[B].
Criticisms of Retributivism
21
[§] 2.05
Mixed Theories of Punishment
22
[§] 2.06
Sentencing
24
ch. 3
Sources of the Criminal Law
27
[§] 3.01
Origins of the Criminal Law
27
[A].
Common Law
27
[B].
Criminal Statutes
27
[§] 3.02
Modern Role of the Common Law
28
[A].
"Reception" Statutes
28
[B].
Statutory Interpretation
29
[§] 3.03
Model Penal Code
30
ch. 4
Constitutional Limits on the Criminal Law
33
[§] 4.01
The Constitution: Overview
33
[§] 4.02
Relevant Constitutional Provisions
33
[A].
Bill of Rights
33
[B].
Fourteenth Amendment
34
[§] 4.03
Policy Factors in Enforcing the Constitution
35
[A].
In General
35
[B].
Separation of Powers
36
[C].
Federalism
36
[D].
Protecting Individual Rights
36
ch. 5
Legality
39
[§] 5.01
Principle of Legality
39
[A].
"Legality": Definition
39
[B].
Rationale
40
[C].
Constitutional Law
41
[1].
Bill of Attainder and Ex Post Facto Clauses
41
[2].
Due Process Clause
42
[§] 5.02
Statutory Clarity
43
[§] 5.03
Avoiding Undue Discretion in Law Enforcement
45
[§] 5.04
Strict Construction of Statutes (Rule of Lenity)
47
ch. 6
Proportionality
49
[§] 6.01
"Proportionality" in the Criminal Law: Overview
49
[§] 6.02
Utilitarianism and Proportionality
50
[A].
Genera] Principles
50
[B].
Application of the Principles
50
[1].
General Deterrence
50
[2].
Individual Deterrence or Incapacitation
51
[3].
Rehabilitation
52
[§] 6.03
Retributivism and Proportionality
52
[A].
General Principles
52
[B].
Application of the Principles
52
[1].
In General
52
[2].
Devising a Proportional Retributive System
53
[§] 6.04
Comparing the Two Theories of Proportionality
54
[§] 6.05
Constitutional Requirement of Proportionality
55
[A].
General Principles
55
[B].
Death Penalty
56
[C].
Terms of Imprisonment
59
[1].
Rummel v. Estelle
59
[2].
Solem v. Helm
61
[3].
Harmelin v. Michigan
61
[4].
Ewing v. California
63
[5].
Summary
64
ch. 7
Burdens of Proof
67
[§] 7.01
Putting the Issues in Procedural Context
67
[§] 7.02
Burden of Production
67
[A].
Nature of the Burden
67
[B].
Who Has the Burden?
68
[C].
How Great Is the Burden?
68
[D].
Effect of Failing to Meet the Burden
69
[§] 7.03
Burden Of Persuasion
69
[A].
Nature of the Burden
69
[B].
Who Has the Burden?
70
[1].
The Presumption of Innocence: The Winship Doctrine (In General)
70
[2].
Mullaney v. Wilbur
70
[3].
Patterson v. New York
72
[4].
Post-Patterson Case Law
73
[a].
In General
73
[b].
Element of an Offense versus a Defense
74
[C].
How Great Is the Burden?
76
[1].
Elements of Crimes: Proof Beyond a Reasonable Doubt
76
[2].
Defenses
77
[D].
Effect of Failing to Meet the Burden
77
[1].
Elements of Crimes
77
[§] 7.04
Model Penal Code
78
ch. 8
Presumptions
19
[§] 8.01
The Nature of a Presumption
79
[§] 8.02
Mandatory Presumptions
80
[A].
Rebuttable Presumptions
80
[B].
Irrebuttable ("Conclusive") Presumptions
81
[§] 8.03
Permissive Presumptions ("Inferences")
81
[§] 8.04
Model Penal Code
83
ch. 9
Actus Reus
85
[§] 9.01
Actus Reus: General Principles
85
[A].
Definition
85
[B].
Punishing Thoughts: Why Not?
86
[§] 9.02
Voluntary Act: General Principles
87
[A].
General Rule
87
[B].
The "Act"
87
[C].
"Voluntary"
88
[1].
Broad Meaning: In the Context of Defenses
88
[2].
Narrow Meaning: In the Context of the Actus Reus
89
[3].
"Voluntariness": At the Edges
91
[a].
Hypnotism
91
[b].
Multiple Personality (or Dissociative Identity) Disorder
91
[D].
Voluntary Act Requirement: Rationale
92
[E].
Burden of Proof
93
[F].
The Issue of "Time-Framing"
94
[§] 9.03
Voluntary Act: Supposed (But Not Real) Exceptions to the Requirement
95
[A].
Poorly Drafted Statutes
95
[B].
Status Offenses
96
[C].
Crimes of Possession
96
[§] 9.04
Voluntary Act: Constitutional Law
97
[A].
Robinson v. California
97
[B].
Powell v. Texas
98
[C].
Current Law: Powell in Light of Robinson
99
[§] 9.05
Voluntary Act: Model Penal Code
100
[A].
General Principles
100
[B].
Exception to the Rule
101
[§] 9.06
Omissions: General Principles
101
[A].
General Rule
101
[B].
Criticisms of the General Rule
102
[C].
Defense of the General Rule
103
[§] 9.07
Omissions: Exceptions to the No-Liability Rule
105
[A].
Common Law Duty to Act: "Commission by Omission"
105
[1].
Overview
105
[2].
When There Is a Duty to Act
106
[a].
Status Relationship
106
[b].
Contractual Obligation
106
[c].
Omissions Following an Act
106
[i].
Creation of a Risk
106
[ii].
Voluntary Assistance
107
[B].
Statutory Duty (Including "Bad Samaritan" Laws)
107
[§] 9.08
Omissions: Model Penal Code
108
[§] 9.09
Medical "Omissions": A Special Problem
109
[A].
Act or Omission?
109
[B].
Analysis as an Omission
109
[C].
The Barber Approach
110
[D].
Reflections Regarding Barber
111
[§] 9.10
Social Harm: General Principles
112
[A].
Overview
112
[B].
Definition of "Social Harm"
113
[C].
Finding the "Social Harm" Element in a Criminal Statute
113
[D].
Dividing "Social Harm" Into Sub-Elements
114
[1].
"Conduct" Elements (or "Conduct" Crimes)
114
[2].
"Result" Elements (or "Result" Crimes)
114
[3].
Attendant Circumstances
114
[§] 9.11
Social Harm: Constitutional Limits
115
ch. 10
Mens Rea
117
[§] 1.0.01
General Principle
117
[§] 10.02
Definition of "Mens Rea"
118
[A].
Ambiguity of the Term
118
[B].
Broad Meaning: The "Culpability" Meaning of "Mens Rea"
118
[C].
Narrow Meaning: The "Elemental" Meaning of "Mens Rea"
119
[§] 10.03
Rationale of the Mens Rea Requirement
120
[A].
Utilitarian Arguments
120
[B].
Retributive Arguments
120
[§] 10.04
Frequently Used Mens Rea Terms
121
[A].
"Intentionally"
121
[1].
Definition
121
[2].
"Motive" Distinguished
123
[3].
"Transferred Intent"
124
[a].
General Doctrine
124
[b].
An Unnecessary and Potentially Misleading Doctrine
125
[c].
Looking Past the Easy Cases
126
[B].
"Knowingly" or "With Knowledge"
127
[C].
"Willfully"
129
[D].
"Negligence" and "Recklessness"
130
[1].
Overview
130
[2].
"Negligence"
131
[a].
In General
131
[b].
Distinguishing Civil from Criminal Negligence
132
[c].
Should Negligence Be Punished?
132
[d].
Who Really Is the "Reasonable Person"?: Initial Observations
134
[3].
"Recklessness"
135
[E].
"Malice"
135
[§] 10.05
Statutory Interpretation: What Elements Does a Mens Rea Term Modify?
136
[§] 10.06
"Specific Intent" and "General Intent"
137
[§] 10.07
Model Penal Code
139
[A].
Section 2.02: In General
139
[B].
Culpability Terms
140
[1].
"Purposely"
140
[2].
"Knowingly"
141
[3].
"Recklessly" and "Negligently"
142
[a].
In General
142
[b].
Nature of the "Reasonable Person"
142
[C].
Principles of Statutory Interpretation
143
ch. 11
Strict Liability
145
[§] 11.01
General Principles
145
[A].
"Strict Liability": Definition
145
[B].
Presumption Against Strict Liability
145
[C].
Public Welfare Offenses
147
[D].
Non-Public-Welfare Offenses
147
[§] 11.02
Policy Debate Regarding Strict-Liability Offenses
148
[A].
Searching for a Justification for Strict Liability
148
[B].
Alternatives to Strict Liability
149
[§] 11.03
Constitutionality of Strict-Liability Offenses
149
[§] 11.04
Model Penal Code
151
ch. 12
Mistakes of Fact
153
[§] 12.01
Putting Mistake-of-Fact in Context
153
[§] 12.02
Why Does a Factual Mistake Sometimes Exculpate?
154
[§] 12.03
Common Law Rules
155
[A].
General Approach
155
[B].
Strict-Liability Offenses
156
[C].
Specific-Intent Offenses
156
[D].
General-Intent Offenses
157
[1].
Ordinary Approach: Was the Mistake Reasonable?
157
[2].
Another (Controversial and Increasingly Uncommon) Approach: Moral-Wrong Doctrine
158
[a].
The Doctrine Is Explained
158
[b].
Criticisms of the Doctrine
160
[3].
Still Another Approach: Legal-Wrong Doctrine
161
[a].
The Doctrine Is Explained
161
[b].
Criticism of the Doctrine
161
[E].
Regina v. Morgan: Common Law in Transition or an Aberration?
162
[§] 12.04
Model Penal Code
163
[A].
General Rule
163
[B].
Exception to the Rule
164
ch. 13
Mistakes of Law
167
[§] 13.01
General Principles
167
[A].
General Rule
167
[B].
Rationale of the Rule
168
[1].
Certainty of the Law
168
[2].
Avoiding Subjectivity in the Law
168
[3].
Deterring Fraud
169
[4].
Encouraging Legal Knowledge
169
[§] 13.02
When Mistake-of-Law is a Defense: Exceptions to the General Rule
170
[A].
Putting the Exceptions in Context
170
[B].
Reasonable-Reliance Doctrine (Entrapment by Estoppel)
171
[1].
No Defense: Reliance on One's Own Interpretation of the Law
171
[2].
No Defense: Advice of Private Counsel
171
[3].
Official Interpretation of the Law
172
[C].
Fair Notice and the Lambert Principle
174
[D].
Ignorance or Mistake That Negates Mens ReaSee generally Sharon L. Davies, The Jurisprudence of Willfulness: An Evolving Theory of Excusable Ignorance, 48 Duke L.J. 341 (1998)
175
[1].
General Approach
175
[2].
Specific-Intent Offenses
176
[3].
General-Intent Offenses
177
[4].
Strict-Liability Offenses
178
[§] 13.03
Model Penal Code
178
[A].
General Rule
178
[B].
Exceptions to the General Rule
178
[1].
Reasonable-Reliance Doctrine
178
[2].
Fair Notice
179
[3].
Ignorance or Mistake That Negates Mens Rea
179
ch. 14
Causation
181
[§] 14.01
General Principles
181
[A].
"Causation": An Element of Criminal Responsibility
181
[B].
"Causation": Its Role in Criminal Law Theory
182
[C].
"Causation": Criminal Law versus Tort Law
183
[§] 14.02
Actual Cause (Or "Factual Cause")
184
[A].
"But-For" ("Sine Qua Non") Test
184
[B].
"Causes" versus "Conditions"
184
[C].
Special "Actual Cause" Problems
185
[1].
Confusing "Causation" With "Mens Rea"
185
[a].
Causation Without Mens Rea
185
[b].
Mens Rea Without Causation
186
[2].
Multiple Actual Causes
186
[a].
Accelerating a Result
186
[b].
Concurrent Sufficient Causes
187
[3].
Obstructed Cause
188
[§] 14.03
Proximate Cause (Or "Legal Cause")
188
[A].
Putting "Proximate Cause" in Context
188
[B].
Direct Cause
189
[C].
Intervening Causes
190
[1].
Overview
190
[2].
Factor 1: De Minimis Contribution to the Social Harm
190
[3].
Factor 2: Foreseeability of the Intervening Cause
191
[a].
In General
191
[b].
Responsive (Dependent) Intervening Causes
191
[c].
Coincidental (Independent) Intervening Causes
192
[4].
Factor 3: The Defendant's Mens Mea (Intended Consequences Doctrine)
193
[5].
Factor 4: Dangerous Forces that Come to Rest (Apparent Safety Doctrine)
194
[6].
Factor 5: Free, Deliberate, Informed Human Intervention
195
[7].
Factor 6: Omissions
196
[§] 14.04
Model Penal Code
196
[A].
Actual Cause
196
[B].
Proximate Cause (Actually, Culpability)
196
ch. 15
Concurrence of Elements
199
[§] 15.01
General Principles
199
[§] 15.02
Temporal Concurrence
199
[A].
Mens Rea Preceding Actus Reus
199
[B].
Actus Reus Preceding Mens Rea
200
[§] 15.03
Motivational Concurrence
200
[§] 15.04
Special Problem: Temporally Divisible Acts and/or Omissions
201
ch. 16
Defenses: An Overview
203
[§] 16.01
Defenses: In Context
203
[§] 16.02
Failure-of-Proof Defenses
204
[§] 16.03
Justification Defenses
204
[§] 16.04
Excuse Defenses
205
[§] 16.05
Specialized Defenses ("Offense Modifications")
205
[§] 16.06
Extrinsic Defenses ("Nonexculpatory Defenses")
206
ch. 17
Justifications And Excuses
207
[§] 17.01
Historical Overview
207
[§] 17.02
Underlying Theories of "Justification"
208
[A].
Searching for an Explanatory Theory
208
[B].
"Public Benefit" Theory
209
[C].
"Moral Forfeiture" Theory
209
[D].
"Moral Rights" Theory
210
[E].
"Superior Interest" (or "Lesser Harm") Theory
211
[§] 17.03
Underlying Theories of "Excuse"
211
[A].
Searching for an Explanatory Theory
211
[B].
Deterrence Theory
212
[C].
Causation Theory
212
[D].
Character Theory
213
[E].
"Free Choice" (or Personhood) Theory
214
[§] 17.04
Justification Defenses and Mistake-of-Fact Claims
215
[A].
General Rule
215
[B].
Criticisms of the General Rule
216
[C].
Defense of the General Rule
216
[§] 17.05
Justification V. Excuse: Why Does It Matter?
217
[A].
In General
217
[B].
Sending Clear Moral Messages
218
[C].
Providing Theoretical Consistency in the Criminal Law
218
[D].
Accomplice Liability
218
[E].
Third Party Conduct
219
[F].
Retroactivity
220
[G].
Burden of Proof
220
ch. 18
Self-Defense
221
[§] 18.01
General Principles
221
[A].
Overview
221
[B].
Elements of the Defense
221
[C].
The Necessity Component
222
[D].
The Proportionality Component
222
[E].
The "Reasonable Belief" Component
222
[§] 18.02
Deadly Force: Clarification of the General Principles
223
[A].
"Deadly Force": Definition
223
[B].
The "Non-Aggressor" Limitation
224
[1].
Definition of "Aggressor"
224
[2].
Removing the Status of "Aggressor"
225
[a].
Deadly Aggressor
225
[b].
Nondeadly Aggressor
225
[C].
Necessity Requirement: The Special Issue of Retreat
226
[1].
Explanation of the Issue
226
[2].
Contrasting Approaches
226
[3].
The "Castle" Exception to the Retreat Rule
228
[D].
Nature of the Threat: "Imminent, Unlawful Deadly Force"
230
[1].
"Imminent"
230
[2].
"Unlawful Force"
232
[§] 18.03
Deadly Force: "Imperfect" Self-Defense Claims
232
[§] 18.04
Deadly Force in Self-Protection: Rationale for the Defense
233
[A].
Self-Defense as an Excuse
233
[B].
Self-Defense as a Justification
234
[1].
Utilitarian Explanations
234
[2].
Non-Utilitarian Explanations
235
[§] 18.05
Self-Defense: Special Issues
236
[A].
The Reasonable-Belief Standard: More Reflections About the "Reasonable Person"
236
[1].
The Issue
236
[2].
The Law
239
[B].
"Battered Woman Syndrome"
240
[1].
Issue Overview
240
[2].
Jury Instructions on Self-Defense
242
[3].
Evidentiary Issues
242
[a].
Prior Abuse by the Decedent
242
[b].
Expert Testimony Regarding Battered Woman Syndrome
243
[4].
Nonconfrontational Battered Woman Self-Defense?: Some Reflections
245
[C].
Risk to Innocent Bystanders
246
[D].
Resisting an Unlawful Arrest
247
[§] 18.06
Model Penal Code
249
[A].
General Rules
249
[1].
Force, in General
249
[a].
Permissible Use
249
[b].
Impermissible Use: Resisting an Unlawful Arrest
250
[2].
Deadly Force, in General
250
[a].
"Deadly Force": Definition
250
[b].
Permissible Use
251
[c].
Impermissible Use
251
[i].
Deadly Force by Aggressors
251
[ii].
Retreat
251
[iii].
Summarizing the MPC Deadly-Force Rules
252
[B].
Mistake-of-Fact Claims and Model Penal Code Justification Defenses
253
[C].
Justification Defenses and Risks to Innocent Bystanders
253
ch. 19
Defense of Others
255
[§] 19.01
General Rule
255
[§] 19.02
Model Penal Code
256
ch. 20
Defense of Property and Habitation
259
[§] 20.01
Property and Habitation: Comparison and Contrast
259
[§] 20.02
Defense of Property
259
[A].
General Rule
259
[B].
Clarification of the Rule
260
[1].
Possession versus Title to Property
260
[2].
Necessity for the Use of Force
260
[3].
Deadly Force
260
[4].
Threat to Use Deadly Force
261
[5].
Claim of Right
261
[6].
Recapture of Property
262
[§] 20.03
Defense of Habitation
262
[A].
Rationale of the Defense
262
[B].
Rules Regarding Use of Deadly Force
263
[1].
Early Common Law Rule
263
[2].
"Middle" Approach
264
[3].
"Narrow" Approach
264
[C].
Looking at the Rules in Greater Depth
265
[1].
May the Occupant Use Force After the Intruder Has Entered?
265
[2].
Are the Differences in the Habitation Rules Significant?
265
[3].
Relationship of the Defense to Other Defenses
266
[a].
Self-Defense and Defense-of-Others
266
[b].
Law Enforcement Defenses
266
[§] 20.04
Spring Guns
266
[A].
The Issue
266
[B].
Common Law Rule
267
[§] 20.05
Model Penal Code
268
[A].
Permissible Use of Nondeadly Force
268
[1].
Force to Protect Property
268
[2].
Force to Recapture Property
269
[B].
Impermissible Use of Nondeadly Force
269
[C].
Use of Deadly Force
270
[1].
In General
270
[a].
Dispossession of a Dwelling
270
[b].
Prevention of Serious Property Crimes
271
[2].
Spring Guns
272
ch. 21
Law Enforcement
273
[§] 21.01
What Are the "Law Enforcement" Defenses?
273
[§] 21.02
Restraint on Liberty in Law Enforcement: "Public Authority" Defense
274
[A].
By Police Officers
274
[1].
Common Law
274
[2].
Constitutional Limits on the Common Law
274
[B].
By Private Persons
274
[§] 21.03
Force Used in Law Enforcement: Common and Statutory Law
275
[A].
Nondeadly Force
275
[B].
Deadly Force
275
[1].
Crime Prevention
276
[a].
Broad Defense: Minority Rule
276
[b].
Narrow Defense; Majority Rule
276
[2].
Effectuation of an Arrest
276
[a].
By Police Officers
276
[i].
Early Common Law Rule
276
[ii].
Modification of the Rule
277
[b].
By Private Persons
277
[§] 21.04
Force Used in Law Enforcement: Constitutional Limits
278
[A].
Background: The Controversy
278
[B].
Constitutional Law
279
[§] 21.05
Model Penal Code
281
[A].
Authority to Arrest
281
[B].
Crime Prevention
281
[1].
Use of Force, In General
281
[2].
Use of Deadly Force
282
[C].
Effectuation of an Arrest
282
[1].
Use of Force, In General
282
[2].
Use of Deadly Force
283
ch. 22
Necessity
285
[§] 22.01
Basic Nature of the Defense
285
[§] 22.02
General Rules
287
[§] 22.03
Civil Disobedience
289
[§] 22.04
"Necessity" as a Defense to Homicide
291
[A].
The Issue
291
[B].
Regina v. Dudley and Stephens
292
[C].
What Does Dudley and Stephens Really Say?
294
[D].
How Should Dudley and Stephens Have Been Decided?
295
[§] 22.05
Model Penal Code
296
ch. 23
Duress
297
[§] 23.01
General Principles
297
[A].
Overview
297
[B].
Elements of the Defense
297
[C].
Duress: Justification or Excuse?
299
[§] 23.02
Rationale of the Defense (As An Excuse)
300
[A].
Utilitarian Arguments
300
[B].
Retributive Arguments
301
[§] 23.03
Distinguishing Duress from Necessity
302
[§] 23.04
Duress as a Defense to Homicide
303
[A].
General Rule
303
[B].
Is the No-Defense Rule Sensible?
304
[§] 23.05
Escape from Intolerable Prison Conditions
305
[A].
The Issue
305
[B].
The Law
306
[C].
Necessity versus Duress
306
[1].
The Conceptual Problem
306
[2].
Why the Nature of the Defense Is Significant
307
[a].
The Message of Acquittal
307
[b].
Ability to Obtain Acquittal
307
[c].
Liability of Those Who Assist in the Escape
307
[d].
Liability of Those Who Resist the Escape
308
[3].
Concluding Comments
308
[§] 23.06
Situational Duress: Brief Observations
309
[A].
The Simplest Case: Necessity as an Excuse
309
[B].
Going Beyond Natural Threats
310
[§] 23.07
Battered Women Under Duress
311
[§] 23.08
MODEL PENAL CODE
312
[A].
General Rule
312
[B].
Comparison to the Common Law
313
[1].
In General
313
[2].
Escape from Intolerable Prison Conditions
314
[3].
"Situational Duress"
314
[4].
Battered Women and the Nature of the "Person of Reasonable Firmness"
314
ch. 24
Intoxication
317
[§] 24.01
Intoxication and the Criminal Law: An Overview
317
[A].
"Intoxication": Definition
317
[B].
Intoxication Law in Its Social and Historical Context
317
[C].
Intoxication Cases: Issues to Consider
318
[D].
Intoxication Claims: Relationship to Other Defenses
318
[§] 24.02
Voluntary Intoxication: General Principles
319
[A].
Definition of "Voluntary Intoxication"
319
[1].
In General
319
[2].
Alcoholism, Drug Addiction, and "Voluntary Intoxication"
320
[B].
General Rules
320
[1].
No Excuse
320
[2].
When Voluntary Intoxication May Be Exculpatory
321
[§] 24.03
Voluntary Intoxication: Mens Rea
321
[A].
In General
321
[B].
Traditional Common Law Rule
322
[1].
Overview
322
[2].
General-Intent Offenses
322
[3].
Specific-Intent Offenses
323
[4].
Criticism of the Traditional Approach
323
[a].
Why Draw a Distinction?
323
[b].
Should the Defense Be Abolished?
324
[C].
Special Problem: Intoxication and Homicide
325
[§] 24.04
Voluntary Intoxication: Voluntary Act
326
[§] 24.05
Voluntary Intoxication: Insanity
326
[A].
"Temporary" Insanity
326
[B].
"Fixed" Insanity
327
[§] 24.06
Involuntary Intoxication
328
[A].
Definition
328
[B].
General Rule
329
[§] 24.07
Model Penal Code
330
[A].
General Rule
330
[B].
Negation of an Element of an Offense
330
[1].
Mental State
330
[a].
In General
330
[b].
Exception to the Rule
330
[2].
Voluntary Act
331
[C].
Intoxication as an Affirmative Defense
331
ch. 25
Insanity
333
[§] 25.01
Insanity: An Overview
333
[§] 25.02
Insanity Defense: Procedural Context
334
[A].
Competency to Stand Trial
334
[1].
General Rule
334
[2].
Procedures for Determining Competency
335
[3].
Effect of an Incompetency Finding
335
[B].
Pre-Trial Assertion of the Insanity Plea
336
[C].
Jury Verdicts
336
[D].
Bifurcated Trial
337
[E].
Burden of Proof
338
[§] 25.03
Rationale of the Insanity Defense
338
[A].
Utilitarian Theory
339
[B].
Retributive Theory
339
[§] 25.04
Definitions of "Insanity"
340
[A].
Putting the Insanity Tests in Historical and Legal Context
340
[B].
"Mental Disease or Defect"
342
[1].
In General
342
[2].
Medical Definition of "Mental Disorder"
342
[3].
Legal Definition of "Mental Disease or Defect"
343
[C].
The Tests
343
[1].
M'Naghten Test
343
[a].
Rule
343
[b].
Criticisms of the Rule
345
[2].
"Irresistible Impulse" Test
346
[a].
Rule
346
[b].
Criticisms of the Rule
347
[3].
American Law Institute (Model Penal Code) Test
347
[a].
Rule
347
[b].
Criticisms of the Rule
348
[4].
The Product Test
348
[a].
Rule
348
[b].
Criticisms of the Rule
349
[5].
Federal Test
350
[§] 25.05
Effect of an Insanity Acquittal
350
[A].
Mental Illness Commitment Procedures
350
[1].
Automatic Commitment
350
[2].
Discretionary Commitment
351
[B].
Release After Commitment for Mental Illness
351
[1].
Criteria for Release
351
[2].
Length of Confinement
352
[3].
Release Procedures
352
[C].
A Different Form of Commitment: Sexual Predator Laws
352
[§] 25.06
Abolition of the Insanity Defense
353
[A].
Abolitionist Arguments
353
[1].
Abuse
354
[2].
Counter-Deterrence
354
[3].
Conflict of Perspectives
355
[4].
"Mental Illness": Merely a Deviation from a Cultural Norm
356
[5].
Equity
356
[B].
Legislative Efforts to Abolish the Defense
357
[§] 25.07
"Guilty But Mentally Ill"
358
ch. 26
Diminished Capacity
361
[§] 26.01
"Diminished Capacity": A Term of Confusion
361
[§] 26.02
Diminished Capacity: Mens Rea Defense
362
[A].
Nature of the Defense
362
[B].
Law
363
[1].
Overview
363
[2].
Defense-to-All-Crimes (Model Penal Code) Approach
363
[3].
Limited-Use Approach
364
[4].
No-Defense Approach
365
[§] 26.03
Diminished Capacity: "Partial Responsibility" Defense
367
[A].
Rule
367
[1].
In General
367
[2].
The Largely Discredited California Approach
367
[3].
The Model Penal Code Approach
368
[B].
Controversy Regarding the Defense
370
ch. 27
Attempt
373
[§] 27.01
Criminal Attempts: An Overview to Inchoate Conduct
373
[§] 27.02
General Principles
374
[A].
Historical Background
374
[B].
Definition of "Attempt"
374
[C].
Punishment of Attempts
375
[D].
Relationship of an Attempt to the Target Offense
375
[E].
"Assault": "Attempt" in Different Clothing
376
[1].
"Assault" versus "Attempt"
376
[2].
Attempted Assault
377
[F].
Inchoate Crimes in Disguise
377
[§] 27.03
"Subjectivism" and "Objectivism"
378
[§] 27.04
Punishing Attempts: Why, and How Much?
381
[A].
Rationale for Punishing Attempts
381
[1].
Utilitarian Analysis
381
[2].
Retributive Analysis
382
[B].
Less or Equal Punishment?
382
[1].
Overview to the Issue
382
[2].
Utilitarian Analysis
383
[3].
Retributive Analysis
384
[§] 27.05
Mens Rea of Criminal Attempts
384
[A].
General Rule
384
[B].
"Result" Crimes
385
[1].
In General
385
[2].
Rationale of Intent Requirement: Does It Make Sense?
386
[3].
Special Homicide Problems
387
[a].
Attempted Felony-Murder
387
[b].
Attempted Manslaughter
388
[C].
"Conduct" Crimes
388
[D].
Attendant Circumstances
389
[§] 27.06
Actus Reus of Criminal Attempts
389
[A].
Policy Context
389
[B].
The Tests
391
[1].
General Observations
391
[2].
"Last Act" Test
392
[3].
"Physical Proximity" Test
392
[4].
"Dangerous Proximity" Test
393
[5].
"Indispensable Element" Test
394
[6].
"Probable Desistance" Test
394
[7].
"Unequivocality" Test
395
[§] 27.07
Defense: Impossibility
396
[A].
The Issue
396
[B].
General Rule
398
[C].
Factual Impossibility
398
[1].
In General
398
[2].
"Inherent" Factual Impossibility
399
[D].
Legal Impossibility
400
[1].
Introductory Comments
400
[2].
Pure Legal Impossibility
400
[3].
Hybrid Legal Impossibility
401
[a].
In General
401
[b].
Modern Approach: Abolition of the Defense
403
[§] 27.08
Defense: Abandonment
404
[§] 27.09
Model Penal Code
406
[A].
Introductory Comments
406
[B].
Criminal Attempt: In General
406
[1].
Elements of the Offense
406
[2].
Explaining Subsection (1)
407
[C].
Mens Rea
407
[D].
Actus Reus
408
[1].
In General
408
[2].
Attempt to Aid
409
[E].
Defenses
410
[1].
Impossibility
410
[a].
Hybrid Legal Impossibility
410
[b].
Pure Legal Impossibility
411
[2].
Renunciation (Abandonment)
411
[F].
Grading of Criminal Attempts and Other Inchoate Crimes
412
[1].
In General
412
[2].
Special Mitigation
412
ch. 28
Solicitation
413
[§] 28.01
General Principles
413
[A].
Definition
413
[1].
In General
413
[2].
Mens Rea
413
[3].
Actus Reus
414
[B].
Relationship of the Solicitor to the Solicited Party
415
[1].
In General
415
[2].
Use of an Innocent Instrumentality
415
[C].
Relationship of a Solicitation to the Target Offense
416
[D].
Policy Considerations
416
[§] 28.02
Comparison of Solicitation to Other Inchoate Offenses
417
[A].
Conspiracy
417
[B].
Criminal Attempt
417
[§] 28.03
Model Penal Code
419
[A].
In General
419
[B].
Defense: Renunciation
420
ch. 29
Conspiracy
421
[§] 29.01
Conspiracy: In General
421
[A].
Common Law
421
[B].
Model Penal Code
422
[§] 29.02
Punishing Conspiracies: Why?
423
[A].
"Conspiracy" as an Inchoate Offense: Preventive Law Enforcement
423
[B].
Special Dangers of Group Criminality
423
[§] 29.03
Punishing Conspiracies: How Much?
424
[A].
In General
424
[1].
Common Law and Non-Model Penal Code Statutes
424
[2].
Model Penal Code
424
[B].
Punishment When the Target Offense is Committed
425
[1].
Common Law
425
[2].
Model Penal Code
425
[§] 29.04
Conspiracy: The Agreement
426
[A].
In General
426
[B].
Distinguishing the Agreement from the Group That Agrees
428
[C].
Object of the Agreement
429
[D].
Overt Act
430
[E].
Model Penal Code
431
[1].
In General
431
[2].
Object of the Agreement
431
[3].
Overt Act
431
[§] 29.05
Conspiracy: Mens Rea
432
[A].
In General
432
[B].
Special Issues
432
[1].
"Purpose" versus "Knowledge": The Meaning of "Intent"
432
[2].
Mens Rea Regarding Attendant Circumstances
434
[3].
Corrupt-Motive Doctrine
435
[C].
Model Penal Code
436
[§] 29.06
"Plurality" Requirement
437
[A].
Common Law
437
[B].
Model Penal Code
439
[§] 29.07
Parties to a Conspiracy
440
[A].
The Issue
440
[1].
Kotteakos v. United States
440
[2].
Blumenthal v. United States
441
[3].
United States v. Peoni
441
[4].
United States v. Bruno
441
[B].
Why the Issue Matters
442
[1].
Liability for Conspiracy
442
[2].
Liability of Parties for Substantive Offenses
442
[3].
Use of Hearsay Evidence
442
[4].
Joint Trial
443
[5].
Overt-Act Requirement
443
[6].
Venue
444
[C].
Structure of Conspiracies
444
[1].
Wheel Conspiracies
444
[2].
Chain Conspiracies
444
[3].
Chain-Wheel Conspiracies
445
[D].
Common Law Analysis
445
[1].
In General
445
[2].
Wheel Conspiracies
446
[3].
Chain Conspiracies
446
[4].
Chain-Wheel Conspiracies
447
[E].
Model Penal Code
447
[1].
Relevant Provisions
447
[2].
Example of the Code Approach: United States v. Bruno
448
[§] 29.08
Objectives of a Conspiracy
449
[A].
The Issue
449
[B].
Common Law Analysis
449
[C].
Model Penal Code
450
[§] 29.09
Defenses
450
[A].
Impossibility
450
[1].
Common Law
450
[2].
Model Penal Code
451
[B].
Abandonment
452
[1].
Common Law
452
[2].
Model Penal Code
452
[C].
Wharton's Rule
453
[1].
Common Law
453
[a].
In General
453
[b].
Exceptions to the Rule
454
[2].
Model Penal Code
454
[D].
Legislative-Exemption Rule
455
[1].
Common Law
455
[2].
Model Penal Code
456
ch. 30
Liability for the Acts of Others: Complicity
457
[§] 30.01
Complicity: Overview to Accomplice and Conspiratorial Liability
457
[§] 30.02
Accomplice Liability: General Principles
458
[A].
General Rules
458
[1].
Definition of an "Accomplice"
458
[2].
Criminal Responsibility of an Accomplice: Derivative Liability
458
[B].
Theoretical Foundations of Accomplice Liability
459
[§] 30.03
Accomplice Liability: Common Law Terminology
460
[A].
Parties to a Felony
460
[1].
General Comments
460
[2].
Principal in the First Degree
460
[a].
In General
460
[b].
Innocent-Instrumentality Rule
460
[i].
In General
460
[ii].
Difficulties in Application of the Rule
461
[3].
Principal in the Second Degree
462
[4].
Accessory Before the Fact
463
[5].
Accessory After the Fact
463
[B].
Principals versus Accessories: Procedural Significance
464
[1].
General Comments
464
[2].
Jurisdiction
464
[3].
Rules of Pleading
464
[4].
Timing of the Trial of Accessories
465
[5].
Effect of the Acquittal of a Principal
465
[6].
Degree of Guilt of the Parties
465
[§] 30.04
Accomplice Liability: Assistance
465
[A].
Types of Assistance
465
[1].
In General
465
[2].
Physical Conduct
466
[3].
Psychological Influence
466
[4].
Assistance by Omission
467
[B].
Amount of Assistance Required
467
[1].
In General
467
[2].
Accomplice Liability and the Doctrine of Causation
468
[a].
The Law
468
[b].
Criticism of the Law
468
[§] 30.05
Accomplice Liability: Mens Rea
469
[A].
In General
469
[B].
Significant Mens Rea Issues
470
[1].
The Feigning Accomplice
470
[2].
"Purpose" versus "Knowledge": The Meaning of "Intent"
472
[3].
Liability for Crimes of Recklessness and Negligence
473
[4].
Attendant Circumstances
474
[5].
Natural-and-Probable-Consequences Doctrine
475
[§] 30.06
Liability of the Secondary Party in Relation to the Primary Party
476
[A].
General Principles
476
[B].
Liability When the Primary Party Is Acquitted
477
[1].
"Primary Party" as an Innocent Instrumentality
477
[2].
Acquittal on the Basis of a Defense
478
[a].
Justification Defenses
478
[b].
Excuse Defenses
478
[3].
Acquittal on the Basis of Lack of Mens Rea
479
[a].
In General
479
[b].
Special Problem: The Feigning Primary Party
481
[C].
Liability of an Accomplice When the Primary Party Is Convicted
481
[§] 30.07
Limits to Accomplice Liability
484
[A].
Legislative-Exemption Rule
484
[B].
Abandonment
484
[§] 30.08
Conspiratorial Liability: The Pinkerton Doctrine
484
[A].
"Accomplice" versus "Conspiratorial" Liability
484
[B].
Rule of Conspiratorial Liability
486
[C].
Comparison of Liability
486
[§] 30.09
Model Penal Code
487
[A].
Forms of Liability
487
[1].
In General
487
[2].
Accountability Through an Innocent Instrumentality
487
[3].
Miscellaneous Accountability
488
[4].
Accomplice Accountability
488
[5].
Rejection of Conspiratorial Liability
488
[B].
Nature of an "Accomplice"
489
[1].
Conduct
489
[a].
In General
489
[b].
Accomplice Liability by Solicitation
489
[c].
Accomplice Liability by Aiding
489
[d].
Accomplice Liability by Agreeing to Aid
489
[e].
Accomplice Liability by Attempting to Aid
490
[i].
In General
490
[ii].
The Relationship of [§] 2.06 (Complicity) to [§] 5.01 (Criminal Attempt)
490
[f].
Accomplice Liability by Omission
491
[2].
Mental State
491
[a].
In General
491
[b].
Liability for Crimes of Recklessness and Negligence
492
[c].
Attendant Circumstances
493
[d].
Natural-and-Probable-Consequences Doctrine
493
[C].
Liability of the Accomplice in Relation to the Perpetrator
493
[D].
Limits to Accomplice Liability
494
ch. 31
Criminal Homicide
495
[§] 31.01
Homicide
495
[A].
Definition of "Homicide"
495
[B].
Definition of "Human Being"
495
[1].
The Beginning of Human Life
495
[2].
The End of Human Life
496
[C].
Year-and-a-Day Rule
497
[§] 31.02
Criminal Homicide: General Principles
498
[A].
"Murder" and "Manslaughter": Common Law Definitions
498
[B].
Murder: Definition of "Malice Aforethought"
499
[1].
"Aforethought"
499
[2].
"Malice"
499
[C].
Manslaughter: Types of "Unlawful Killings"
499
[D].
Statutory Reformulation of Criminal Homicide Law
500
[1].
In General
500
[2].
The Division of Murder Into Degrees ("Pennsylvania Model")
501
[§] 31.03
Murder: Intent to Kill
502
[A].
In General
502
[B].
Proving the Intent to Kill
502
[1].
In General
502
[a].
Natural-and-Probable-Consequences Rule
502
[b].
Deadly-Weapon Rule
502
[2].
Constitutional Limitation
503
[C].
"Wilful, Deliberate, Premeditated" Killings
503
[1].
Overview of the Issue
503
[2].
"Deliberate"
505
[3].
"Premeditated"
506
[§] 31.04
Murder: Intent to Inflict Grievous Bodily Injury
507
[§] 31.05
Murder: Extreme Recklessness ("Depraved Heart" Murder)
508
[A].
In General
508
[1].
Terminology
508
[2].
Facts Supporting a Finding of Extreme Recklessness
508
[B].
Distinguishing Murder from Manslaughter
509
[§] 31.06
Murder: Felony-Murder Rule
510
[A].
The Rule
510
[B].
Rationale of the Rule
512
[1].
Initial Observations
512
[2].
Deterrence
512
[3].
Reaffirming the Sanctity of Human Life
513
[4].
Transferred Intent
514
[5].
Easing the Prosecutor's Burden of Proof
514
[C].
Limits on the Rule
515
[1].
Inherently-Dangerous-Felony Limitation
515
[2].
Independent Felony (or Merger) Limitation
516
[3].
The Res Gestae Requirement
518
[a].
Overview
518
[b].
Time and Distance Requirements
519
[c].
Causation Requirement
520
[4].
Killing by a Non-Felon
520
[a].
The Issue
520
[b].
The "Agency" Approach
521
[c].
The "Proximate Causation" Approach
522
[i].
In General
522
[ii].
Limited Version
522
[d].
Distinguishing Felony-Murder from Other Theories (The "Provocative Act" Doctrine)
523
[§] 31.07
Manslaughter: Provocation ("Sudden Heat of Passion")
524
[A].
In General
524
[B].
Elements of the Defense
524
[1].
State of Passion
524
[2].
Adequate Provocation
525
[a].
Early Common Law Categories
525
[b].
Modern Law
525
[i].
In General
525
[ii].
The Nature of the "Reasonable Person"
527
[3].
Cooling Off Time
530
[4].
Causal Connection
530
[C].
Rationale of the Defense
531
[1].
Partial Justification or Partial Excuse?: Initial Inquiry
531
[2].
Justification or Excuse: A Deeper Look
532
[a].
The Argument for Provocation as a Partial Justification
532
[b].
The Argument for Provocation as a Partial Excuse
533
[3].
Criticism of the Provocation Doctrine
534
[§] 31.08
Manslaughter: Criminal Negligence
535
[§] 31.09
Manslaughter: Unlawful-Act (Misdemeanor-Manslaughter) Doctrine
536
[§] 31.10
Criminal Homicide: Model Penal Code
537
[A].
In General
537
[B].
Murder
537
[C].
Manslaughter
538
[1].
In General
538
[2].
Reckless Homicide
538
[3].
Extreme Mental or Emotional Disturbance
539
[a].
In General
539
[b].
Comparison of Model Code to Common Law "Heat-of-Passion"
540
[D].
Negligent Homicide
541
ch. 32
Theft
543
[§] 32.01
Theft: Historical Overview
543
[§] 32.02
Larceny: General Principles
544
[A].
Definition
544
[B].
Grading of the Offense
545
[§] 32.03
Larceny: Trespass
545
[§] 32.04
Larceny: Taking (Caption)
546
[A].
The Significance of "Possession"
546
[B].
"Custody" versus "Possession"
547
[1].
In General
547
[2].
Temporary and Limited Use of Property
547
[3].
Employers and Employees
548
[a].
Employer to Employee
548
[b].
Third Person to the Employee for the Employer
549
[4].
Bailors and Bailees
549
[5].
Fraud
550
[§] 32.05
Larceny: Carrying Away (Asportation)
551
[§] 32.06
Larceny: Personal Property of Another
552
[A].
Personal Property
552
[1].
Land and Attachments Thereto
552
[2].
Animals
553
[3].
Stolen Property and Contraband
553
[4].
Intangible Personal Property
554
[B].
Of Another
554
[§] 32.07
Larceny: Intent to Steal (Animus Furandi)
555
[A].
Nature of the Felonious Intent
555
[1].
In General
555
[2].
Recklessly Depriving Another of Property Permanently
555
[B].
Concurrence of Mens Rea and Actus Reus
556
[1].
In General
556
[2].
Continuing-Trespass Doctrine
556
[C].
Claim of Right
557
[1].
In General
557
[2].
Forced Sale
558
[§] 32.08
Larceny: Lost and Mislaid Property
558
[§] 32.09
Embezzlement
559
[A].
Historical Background
559
[B].
Elements of the Offense
560
[C].
Distinguishing Larceny from Embezzlement
560
[§] 32.10
False Pretenses
561
[A].
In General
561
[B].
Distinguishing False Pretenses from Larceny and Embezzlement
562
[C].
Elements of the Offense
562
[1].
False Representation
562
[2].
Existing Fact
563
[a].
Fact versus Opinion
563
[b].
Fact versus Promise of Future Conduct
563
[3].
Mens Rea
564
[§] 32.11
Consolidation Of Theft Offenses
564
ch. 33
Rape
567
[§] 33.01
Rape: General Principles
567
[A].
Definition: Common Law
567
[B].
Statutes: Traditional and Reform
568
[C].
Grading of the Offense
569
[§] 33.02
Statistics Regarding Rape
569
[§] 33.03
Social Attitudes Regarding Rape
570
[A].
Social Harm of Rape
570
[1].
The Original Perspective
570
[2].
Modem Perspective
571
[B].
Perceptions of the Seriousness of the Offense
572
[1].
In General
572
[2].
Blaming the Victim
572
[3].
Victim's Relationship to Rapist
573
[§] 33.04
Rape: Actus Reus
574
[A].
In General
574
[B].
Forcible Rape
574
[1].
Traditional Law
574
[b].
Lack of Consent
575
[c].
Force and Resistance
576
[d].
Fear of Force versus Threat of Force
577
[e].
Cases Applying the Traditional Doctrine
578
[2].
The Law in Transition
579
[a].
Resistance Requirement
579
[b].
"Force": Changing Its Definition (or Abolishing the Requirement)
581
[C].
Fraud
583
[§] 33.05
Rape: Mens Rea
585
[§] 33.06
Marital Immunity Rule
587
[A].
The Immunity and Its Rationales
587
[1].
Rule
587
[2].
Rationales
587
[a].
Consent/Property Rationale
587
[b].
Protection of the Marriage
587
[c].
Protection of the Husband in Divorce Proceedings
588
[d].
Less Serious Harm
588
[B].
Breakdown of the Rule
589
[§] 33.07
Proving Rape at Trial
589
[A].
Corroboration Rule and Cautionary Jury Instructions
589
[B].
Rape-Shield Statutes
591
[§] 33.08
Model Penal Code
593
[A].
Sex Offenses, In General
593
[B].
Rape
593
[1].
In General
593
[2].
Comparison to Common Law
594
[C].
Gross Sexual Imposition
595
[D].
Proving a Sexual Offense
595