List of Figures

xli

List of Tables

xliii

Introductory Note / John Paul Stevens

xlvii

2012 Foreword / Guadalupe Valdes

xlvii

1991 Foreword / Joshua A. Fishman

liii

Preface

lv

Acknowledgments

lxv

Introduction

ch. 1

Social Justice through Language Access

3

1.

Social Justice and Diversity

3

1.1.

Lack of Equal Access to Justice

4

1.2.

Marginalization of Language Minorities

5

1.3.

Impetus for Reform: The Court Interpreters Act of 1978

6

1.4.

Continued Pressing Need for Competent Court Interpreters

7

1.5.

Reinforcement of Civil Rights Act: Executive Order 13166 (2000)

9

1.6.

Title VI: Focus on the Courts

11

2.

Providing Language Access: The Profession of Court Interpretation

12

2.1.

The Goal of Court Interpreting: Legal Equivalence Refined to Meaningful Legal Equivalence

14

2.1.1.

The Court Interpreter: Provider of Meaningful Access

16

2.1.2.

Adaptation versus Conservation

17

2.1.3.

Thoughtful Conservation of Meaning and Register

18

2.2.

Prerequisite Skills for Court Interpreting

19

2.2.1.

Formal Education: The Pathway to Competence

25

2.3.

Competent Court Interpreting Is Pivotal to Social Justice

26

3.

Shortage of Court Interpreters

26

4.

The Demand for Language Services

27

4.1.

Changing Demographics

27

4.1.1.

Hispanics: The Largest Minority Group

28

4.1.2.

Growth of the Hispanic Diaspora across the U.S.

28

4.1.3.

Growth of the Asian Population

29

4.2.

Growing Language Diversity in the U.S.

30

4.2.1.

Languages Other Than English Spoken at Home

31

4.2.2.

Asian Language Use

32

4.2.3.

Language Use Patterns Pertinent to Language Services

32

4.3.

Increasing Number of Persons with LEP

33

4.4.

Interpreter Usage in the Courts

34

4.5.

Increasing Need for Language Services

37

ch. 2

Dilemmas in Due Process

39

1.

Substandard Language Accommodation Denies Justice

39

1.1.

Poor Quality Interpretation Leads to Detrimental Legal Outcomes

39

1.2.

The Hanigan Trials in Arizona (1977-1982)

40

1.3.

Testimony of T. Kamiyama to the Grand Jury in the Matter of the Rev. Sun Myoung Moon (U.S. v. Moon, 1983)

43

1.4.

California v. Nguyen (1989)

46

2.

Continued Injustices as a Result of Poor Interpreting Services

48

2.1.

Pagoada v. Kentucky (2001)

49

2.2.

Alfonzo v. Florida (2007)

53

2.3.

Diaz v. Indiana (2010)

58

2.4.

Tennessee v. Barrera (2007)

60

2.5.

California v. Morales-Garcia (2010)

61

2.6.

New Jersey v. DeSouza (2010)

62

2.7.

The Case of Mariella Batista and Other Civil Proceedings

62

3.

Obstacles to Ensuring Equal Access

64

3.1.

Lack of Awareness by Judges and Attorneys of the Criticality of Language Services in Achieving Justice

65

3.2.

The Default Solution for Interpreter Shortage: Reliance on "Otherwise Qualified" Interpreters of Unknown Competence

67

3.3.

Shortage of Certified, Qualified Interpreters in State Courts

68

3.4.

Lack of Uniform Standards of Interpreter Proficiency in State Courts

68

3.5.

Misplaced Focus on Testing over Training to Develop Interpreter Pool

70

3.6.

Failure to Provide a Continuum of Language Services for LEP Populations

72

3.7.

Failure to Consistently Provide Free Interpreting Services for All Types of Cases (Criminal and Civil) in All Jurisdictions and Specialty Courts

73

3.8.

Shortage of Federally Certified Court Interpreters

75

3.9.

Lack of Federal Certification for Languages of Limited Diffusion

76

3.10.

Failure to Provide Interpreting Services in All Legal and Quasi-Legal Forums, Including Encounters with Administrative Agencies

77

3.11.

Failure to Record Foreign Language Testimony

78

3.12.

Denying LEP Defendants Trial by a Jury of Their Peers

79

3.13.

Use of Child Interpreters

80

4.

Signs of Improvement

81

ch. 3

Interpreting as a Profession

83

1.

History of Interpreting

83

2.

Categories of Interpreting

84

2.1.

Community Interpreting

85

2.1.1.

Social Services

87

2.2.

Medical Interpreting

87

2.2.1.

Mental Health

88

2.3.

Educational Interpreting

89

2.4.

Business Interpreting

91

2.5.

Conference Interpreting

91

2.5.1.

Seminar Interpreting

92

2.5.2.

Escort Interpreting

92

2.6.

Remote Interpreting

92

2.7.

Relay Interpreting

93

3.

Legal Implications of Interpreting

93

ch. 4

The Profession of Court Interpretation

95

1.

Introduction

95

2.

Types of Legal Interpreting

95

2.1.

Quasi-Judicial Interpreting

95

2.2.

Court Interpreting

96

3.

Conference Interpreting versus Court Interpreting

96

4.

Growth of Court Interpreting as a Profession

98

5.

The Professionalization of Court Interpreting

99

6.

Current Status of the Court Interpreting Profession

101

7.

Improving the Professional Status of the Interpreter

103

7.1.

Clarifying Ethical Principles and Advancing Professional Status

103

7.2.

Assertion of Professional Standing

105

Unit 1

Historical Antecedents

ch. 5

Overview of Language Policy in the U.S.

109

1.

Fundamental Sociolinguistic Concepts

110

1.1.

Language Policy as a Socially Constructed Phenomenon, Reflecting Societal Concerns, Biases, and Values

111

1.1.1.

A Model for Deciphering and Evaluating Language Policy

119

1.1.2.

Applying the Model: A Policy Analysis of Arizona Proposition 203 (2000), English Language Education for Children in Public Schools ("English for the Children")

119

1.2.

Language and Identity

123

1.3.

Acculturation versus Assimilation

124

1.4.

Language Ideology

125

1.5.

Language Attitudes

127

1.6.

Language Rights

127

2.

The History of Attitudes Toward Foreign Languages and Language Policy in the U.S.

129

2.1.

Prevailing Multilingualism in the Colonial Period (1492 to 1776)

129

2.2.

Mounting Nationalism and Growing Inequality for Language Minorities through the Implementation of Restrictive Language Policies from the Establishment of the U.S. through the 1880s (1764 to 1880s)

130

2.3.

Increasing English-Only Initiatives during the Great Wave of Migration to the U.S. (1880s to 1950s)

133

2.3.1.

Educational Language Policies

134

2.4.

Emerging Social Consciousness and Activism Leading to the Equal Access Legislation Enacted during the Civil Rights Movement (1960s to 1970s)

135

2.4.1.

Political Access

136

2.4.2.

Educational Access

136

2.4.3.

Employment Access

137

2.4.4.

Legal Access

138

2.5.

Rising Backlash against Civil Rights Linguistic Access Laws Expressed through English-Only Initiatives during a Period of Increased Immigration from Latin America and Asia (1980s to 1990s)

139

2.5.1.

Advancing English-Only Policies in the 1980s and 1990s

140

2.5.2.

Continuing Struggle for Civil Rights

141

2.5.3.

Advancing Non-English Languages

145

2.6.

Escalating Nationalistic and Anti-Immigrant Sentiments Expressed through English-Only Legislation in Response to Terrorist Aggression, Dramatic Demographic Shifts, and Changing Economic Conditions (2000 to 2010)

145

2.6.1.

The Unprecedented Number and Scope of English-Only Initiatives

147

2.6.2.

Continued Struggle for Equal Rights

147

3.

Conclusion

152

ch. 6

Bridging the Language Gap: Access to Due Process

155

1.

Federal Rules of Procedure

155

2.

Precursors to the Federal Court Interpreters Act

156

3.

Protection of Constitutional Rights by the Interpreter

157

4.

Early Cases Concerning Interpreters

158

5.

Court Interpretation Before 1978

159

5.1.

Discretion of the Court to Appoint an Interpreter

159

5.2.

A Constitutional Approach: The Concept of "Linguistic Presence" and Right of Confrontation

160

5.3.

The Waiver of the Right to an Interpreter

163

5.4.

Ad Hoc Interpreters

164

5.4.1.

Using Bilingual Attorneys as Interpreters

164

5.4.2.

Appointment of Friends, Relatives, or Adversaries of the Defendant

165

6.

Deficient Interpreting Skills

165

7.

Recognizing the Pervasiveness of Inadequate Interpretation

166

ch. 7

The Court Interpreters Act

169

1.

The Court Interpreters Act of 1978

169

1.1.

Provisions of the Court Interpreters Act

169

1.2.

Recognition of Defendant's Needs

170

1.3.

Recognition of the Need for Quality

170

1.4.

Mandating Interpreters

171

2.

Benefits of the Court Interpreters Act

171

2.1.

Improved and Standardized Pay Scales

172

2.2.

The Ripple Effect

173

2.3.

International Impact

173

3.

Shortcomings of the Court Interpreters Act

174

3.1.

Determining Linguistic Competency

174

3.2.

Training, Testing, and the Lack of Competent Interpreters

175

4.

Monitoring the Court Interpreters Act

176

4.1.

Federal Court Interpreters Advisory Board

177

4.1.1.

Establish Criteria to Trigger Certification

177

4.1.2.

Establish Guidelines for "Professionally or Otherwise Qualified Interpreters"

178

4.1.3.

Proposed Pay Schedules for Freelance Interpreters

180

4.1.4.

Orientation Program for "Professionally Qualified/Language Skilled" Interpreters

180

4.1.5.

Develop a Code of Professional Conduct

181

4.1.6.

Continuing Education

181

5.

The Court Interpreters Amendments Act of 1988

181

6.

The Court Interpreters Act as Amended---Interim Regulations

183

ch. 8

Continuing Access Problems in Federal Courts after the Court Interpreters Act of 1978

185

1.

Introduction

185

2.

Should the Defendant Have Been Appointed an Interpreter?

187

2.1.

Court's Mistaken Assumption That All Biographical Information Is Predictive of Language Proficiency

188

2.2.

Court Errs by Relying on Defendant to Self-Assess English Proficiency

190

2.2.1.

Underestimating the Difficulty of Self-Assessment of English Proficiency for an Unknown Setting

191

2.2.2.

Ignoring the Effect of an LEP Person's Cultural Beliefs and Practices in Self-Assessing English Proficiency

192

2.3.

Courts Wrongfully Rely on Counsel Regarding Defendant's English Proficiency

193

2.4.

Court's Improper Assessment of English Proficiency Using Close-Ended Questions

195

3.

Whom Should the Court Appoint as Interpreter?

197

3.1.

Courts' Continued Use of Ad Hoc Interpreters

197

3.1.1.

Use of Family Members as Interpreters

197

3.1.2.

Use of Noncertified Interpreters

198

3.1.3.

Use of Attorneys as Interpreters

199

3.2.

Court Unduly Relies on Counsel to Object to Unqualified Interpreters

199

4.

Is Interpreter Error Sufficient to Require Reversal on Appeal?

200

4.1.

Courts' Failure to Understand the Effect of Interpreter Errors on Linguistic Presence

201

4.2.

Court's Misinterpretation of Defendant's Silence as Acceptance of Interpreter Performance

202

4.2.1.

Judges' Unfounded Fear of Defendant's "Abuse" of the Judicial System

203

5.

Identifying Problems and Suggestions for Moving toward Language Access in the Courts

205

5.1.

High Standard of Review (Procedural Problems)

205

5.2.

Trial Court's Broad Discretion (Substantive Problem)

207

5.3.

Towards a Unified Approach to Deciding Interpreter Cases

207

5.4.

Evaluating the LEP Individual's Language Accommodation Needs

209

5.4.1.

Assessment of Interpreter Competence

210

5.4.2.

Circumscribing Judge's Discretion through the Use of a Linguistically Sound Voir Dire

211

5.5.

Lack of Knowledge Regarding Language Accommodation Issues

211

5.5.1.

Lawyers Should Assume the Role of Linguistic Access Advocate

212

5.5.2.

Judges Should Assume a More Proactive Role as Guarantors of Linguistic Access

213

5.6.

The Court Interpreting Profession Should Take a More Assertive Role in Promoting Equal Access to Justice through Competent Interpretation and Adherence to Ethical Standards

213

6.

Conclusion

214

ch. 9

Court Interpretation at the State and Local Court Level

215

1.

Brief Overview of Interpreting in State and Local Courts

215

2.

Obstacles to the Equal Provision of Interpreter Services in State Courts

217

2.1.

Lack of Effective and Ethical Utilization of Interpreter Services

217

2.2.

Inadequate Determination of the Need for Interpreter Services

218

2.3.

Inadequate Articulation and Assessment of Standards for Interpreter Competency and Qualifications

219

2.4.

Inconsistent Provision of Interpreters in All Settings and Stages of the Legal System

219

2.5.

Inconsistent Provision of Interpreters across Criminal or Civil Proceedings

220

2.6.

Inconsistent Language Accommodation in Local and Specialized Court Systems

220

2.7.

Circumvention of Financial Responsibility for the Cost of Interpreter Services

221

3.

States' Recognition of the Need for Court Interpreter Services: 1970s to the Present

222

3.1.

Provision of Interpreter Services by the State Courts

224

3.2.

Continuing Disparity in the Provision of Interpreter Services in State Courts

225

3.3.

The Emergence of Court Interpreter Programs in Individual States

226

3.3.1.

California

226

3.3.2.

New York

228

3.3.3.

New Mexico

230

3.3.4.

New Jersey

231

3.3.5.

Washington State

233

4.

Establishment of the Consortium for Language Access in the Courts

234

4.1.

Structure and Functions of the Consortium

236

4.2.

Ramifications of the Consortium's Lack of Mandatory Standards and Central Authority

237

4.2.1.

The Inadequacy of Tiered Certification Systems

237

4.2.2.

Legal Loopholes to the Provision of Interpreter Services

239

4.2.3.

Delayed Implementation of Court Interpreter Programs

239

4.2.4.

Violation of LEP Persons' Fundamental Right to Equal Access

240

4.2.5.

Inconsistent Testing and Reciprocity Standards

240

5.

Current Status of Court Interpreting at the State and Local Level in Non-Consortium States

241

6.

Future Considerations and Recommendations

242

6.1.

Legislative Remedies to Support the Funding of State Court Interpreter Programs

242

6.2.

Further Research and Advocacy for Language Access

243

6.3.

Need for Continued DOJ Enforcement and Empirically Based Competency Criteria

243

6.4.

Need for a Government Agency with Proper Authority

244

ch. 10

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act and Its Implementation

245

1.

Title VI and Language Access: Introduction

245

1.1.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

246

1.2.

Lau v. Nichols (1974)

246

1.3.

Executive Orders 12250 and 13166

247

1.3.1.

Executive Order 12250 (1980)

247

1.3.2.

Executive Order 13166 (2000)

247

1.4.

The Department of Justice: LEP Guidance

248

2.

LEP Guidance

249

2.1.

Who Must Comply

249

2.2.

Four-Factor Analysis

249

2.2.1.

Number or Proportion of LEP Persons

250

2.2.2.

Frequency of Use

250

2.2.3.

Critical Nature of Activity

250

2.2.4.

Resources and Costs

251

2.3.

Final Determination of Title VI Obligations

251

3.

Enforcement of Title VI

253

3.1.

Judicial Enforcement of Title VI

253

3.1.1.

Pre-Sandoval (2001)

253

3.1.2.

Sandoval (2001)

254

3.1.3.

Post-Sandoval (2001)

255

3.2.

The DOJ's Enforcement of Title VI: Complaint and Compliance Review Procedure

255

3.2.1.

Voluntary Compliance

256

3.2.2.

Enforcement through Termination of Federal Funding

256

4.

The DOJ's Enforcement of the LEP Guidance

257

4.1.

DOJ Enforcement of Title VI in State Courts

257

4.2.

DOJ Enforcement Efforts

258

4.3.

Historical Shortcomings of the LEP Guidance

261

4.4.

The Future of LEP Guidance: The Colorado Judicial Department Model

262

4.5.

The DOJ's Renewed Commitment to Title VI Compliance by All Federal Agencies

265

ch. 11

Guidance to State Courts on the Provision of Meaningful Access to LEP Individuals

267

1.

State Courts as the Principal Forum for the Protection of Legal Rights

267

2.

Best Practice Standards for Achieving Language Access in State Courts

268

2.1.

Interpreters Must Be Provided in All Types of Court Proceedings, Including Court-Annexed Proceedings and Critical Encounters Outside the Courtroom

269

2.2.

Interpreting Services Must Extend beyond the Courtroom to All Court Services and Alternative Programs

270

2.3.

Interpreters Must Be Provided at No Charge

270

2.4.

Fiscal Pressures Should Not Obstruct LEP Individuals' Access to the Legal Process

271

2.5.

Courts Have a Duty to Advise LEP Persons of Their Right to an Interpreter

272

2.6.

Interpreter Services Must Be Provided in a Timely Manner

272

2.7.

Language Service Providers Must Be Competent

273

2.7.1.

Courts Should Assure the Competency of All Interpreters

273

2.7.2.

Assure Provision of Competent Interpreting Services in Languages of Limited Diffusion (LLDs)

274

2.8.

Courts Should Ensure That All Bilingual Staff and Contract Providers Are Trained and Competent

275

2.9.

Qualifications and Training of a Competent Court Interpreter

276

2.10.

Courts Must Provide Competent, Appropriate Translations of Vital Documents

278

2.11.

Judges and Other Court Personnel Must Know When and How to Appoint Interpreters

280

3.

Courts Must Develop and Implement a Language Access Plan

281

3.1.

Essential Elements of a Language Access Plan (LAP)

281

3.1.1.

Courts Must Document All Aspects Related to Providing Language Services

282

3.2.

Recommendations for Effectively Developing and Implementing a Language Assistance Plan

283

3.3.

Courts Should Initiate a Systematic Approach by Examining Language Service Needs in Every Facet of Their Activities, Programs, and Services

284

3.3.1.

Linguistic Contact Map

285

3.4.

Self-Monitoring Court Compliance with Title VI

286

4.

Training Standards for the Implementation of an Effective LAP

286

4.1.

Required Title VI Training for Court Personnel

286

5.

Need for Statewide Coordination

288

ch. 12

Interpreting for Federal Government Agencies

293

1.

Department of Justice

293

1.1.

Executive Office for Immigration Review

294

1.2.

Federal Bureau of Investigation

297

1.2.1.

The FBI's National Virtual Translation Center

298

2.

Department of Homeland Security

298

2.1.

Department of Homeland Security Immigration and Border Agencies

300

2.2.

United States Coast Guard

301

3.

Department of Defense

302

4.

State Department

303

4.1.

Office of Language Services

304

4.1.1.

Interpreting Division

304

4.1.2.

Translating Division

305

5.

Federal Interagency Language Roundtable

305

6.

Conclusion

306

ch. 13

Court Interpreting Outside the U.S.

307

1.

Introduction

307

2.

International Tribunals

308

2.1.

United Nations Tribunals

308

2.2.

Regional Tribunals

309

2.2.1.

The Americas

309

2.2.2.

Africa

310

2.2.3.

Europe

310

3.

National Court Systems

313

3.1.

Asia

313

3.2.

Latin America

315

3.3.

Africa

315

3.4.

Canada

316

3.5.

Australia

320

3.5.1.

National Accreditation

321

3.6.

The United Kingdom

323

3.6.1.

Language Rights

323

4.

Conclusion

324

Unit 2

Legal Overview

ch. 14

Overview of the U.S. Government

329

1.

Introduction

329

2.

Definition of Law

329

3.

Overview of the U.S. Government

330

ch. 15

Overview of the U.S. Criminal Justice System

333

1.

Introduction

333

2.

The Constitution and Its Amendments

333

3.

Criminal Law

335

4.

Burden of Proof

336

5.

Punishment

337

6.

The Judicial Setting

337

7.

Distinctions Among Courts

338

8.

Jurisdiction

339

9.

State Courts

339

10.

Federal Courts

340

11.

Other Agencies and Officials

342

12.

Civil Law

343

13.

The Adversarial System

345

ch. 16

Criminal Procedure

347

1.

Pre-and Post-Arrest Investigations

347

2.

Arrest

347

2.1.

Types of Criminal Offenses

348

2.2.

Search

348

2.3.

Advisement of Rights (Miranda Warning)

349

2.3.1.

History

349

2.3.2.

Elements of the Miranda Warning

349

2.3.3.

Reading of the Miranda Warnings

350

2.3.4.

Subsequent Developments and Known Issues

351

2.3.5.

Additional Rights of Foreign Nationals

352

2.4.

Booking

352

2.5.

Charging

353

3.

Initial Appearance

354

4.

Preliminary Hearing or Grand Jury Proceedings

355

5.

Arraignments in Courts of General Jurisdiction

356

6.

Pretrial Procedures

357

6.1.

Pretrial Motions

357

6.2.

Disposition of Cases Other Than by Trial

359

6.2.1.

Plea Bargains

359

6.2.2.

Pretrial Diversion

361

6.2.3.

Compromise

361

6.3.

Pretrial or Status Conferences and Omnibus Hearings

361

6.4.

Bail

362

6.4.1.

Opportunities for Bail

362

7.

The Trial

364

7.1.

Impaneling the Jury

365

7.2.

Opening Statements

367

7.3.

Presentation of Evidence

367

7.3.1.

Testimonial Evidence

367

7.3.2.

Tangible Evidence

368

7.4.

Objections

369

7.4.1.

Objections to Questions

370

7.4.2.

Objections to Answers

372

7.4.3.

Objections to Exhibits

372

7.5.

Resting the Case

373

7.6.

The Defense

373

7.7.

Rebuttals

373

7.8.

Closing Arguments

374

7.9.

Final Jury Instructions

374

7.9.1.

General Instructions

375

7.9.2.

Special Instructions

377

7.10.

Bailiff's Oath

377

7.11.

Jury Deliberations

377

7.12.

Hung Jury

378

7.13.

Verdict

378

8.

Sentencing

378

8.1.

Presentencing Report

379

8.2.

Sentencing at the State Level

379

8.3.

Sentencing at the Federal Level

380

9.

Retributive/Restorative/Therapeutic Justice

382

10.

Appeals

384

ch. 17

Comparative Legal Traditions and the Interpreter

385

1.

Introduction

385

2.

Comparative Law Defined

385

2.1.

Complexities in Comparative Law

386

2.2.

Professed and Underlying Values

386

3.

The Common Law or Anglo-American Tradition

387

3.1.

History

387

3.2.

The Players in the Common Law System

387

3.2.1.

Role of the Judge in the Common Law System

388

3.3.

Procedure and Trials in the Common Law Tradition

388

4.

The Civil Law or Romano-Germanic Tradition

389

4.1.

History

389

4.1.1.

Two Different Meanings of "Civil Law"

389

4.1.2.

The Justinian Compilation

390

4.1.3.

The Reception of Roman Law in the Western World and Globally

390

4.1.4.

Modern Iterations of Roman Law

391

4.1.5.

General Principles of Law

392

4.1.6.

The Players in the Civil Law System

392

5.

Comparison of Civil and Common Law Families

394

5.1.

Principles versus Procedures

394

5.2.

Sources of Law

394

5.3.

The Role of Precedent

395

5.4.

Public and Private Law

395

5.5.

Notary Public

396

6.

Criminal Procedure in Civil Law Jurisdictions

396

6.1.

Common Beliefs

397

6.1.1.

Presumption of Innocence

397

6.1.2.

Jury Trials

397

6.1.3.

Adversarial Nature

397

6.2.

Traditional Criminal Procedure

397

6.2.1.

Preliminary Investigation

398

6.2.2.

Dismissal

398

6.2.3.

Bail

398

6.2.4.

The Court-Centered Approach

398

6.2.5.

Public and Private Prosecutors

399

6.2.6.

Trial

399

6.2.7.

Testimony

399

6.2.8.

Composition of the Court

400

6.2.9.

Appeals

400

6.3.

The Changing Face of Criminal Procedure in Latin America

401

6.3.1.

Chile/Chihuahua Case Study

402

7.

The Socialist Law Tradition or Socialist Law Family

404

8.

Islamic or Sharia Law

405

8.1.

Definition

405

8.2.

Branches

406

8.3.

Modern History

406

8.4.

Contemporary Practice

406

8.5.

Legal and Court Proceedings

406

9.

Mixed Legal Traditions: The Navajo Nation

407

Unit 3

Utilization of Interpreter Services

ch. 18

The Role of the Court Interpreter in the U.S. Legal System

411

1.

The Court Interpreter Defined

411

2.

Rationales for the Use of Interpreters in the U.S. Legal System

412

2.1.

The Fourth Amendment

412

2.2.

The Fifth Amendment

413

2.3.

The Sixth Amendment

414

2.4.

The Eighth Amendment

415

3.

Legal Status of the Court Interpreter

415

3.1.

The Court Interpreter's Dual Roles: Court's Expert and Officer of the Court

416

3.1.1.

Understanding the Court Interpreter's Dual Role

417

3.1.2.

Gonzalez Ethics Case Study: Interpreters Offering Expert Opinion Outside Expertise

419

3.1.3.

Courts Compelling Interpreters to Exceed Ethical Boundaries

421

3.2.

Legal Standards Governing the Interpreter as Expert Witness

422

3.2.1.

Daubert Expert Witness Standard

422

3.3.

A Reconceptualization of the Interpreter as an Officer of the Court

424

3.3.1.

The Court Interpreter as Language Access Specialist

425

ch. 19

The Use of Interpreters at Specific Stages of the Criminal Justice Process

427

1.

Pros and Cons of CI and SI in the Judicial Setting

427

2.

Arrest

432

3.

Interviews

433

4.

Initial Appearance

433

5.

Pretrial Motions and Status Conferences

434

6.

Trials

435

7.

Post-Trial Procedures

435

8.

Appeals

436

9.

Multiple Defendants

436

10.

Multiple Language Proceedings, Relay Interpreting

437

11.

Interpreting for LEP Jurors

438

12.

Other Legal Settings

438

13.

Juvenile Courts

439

ch. 20

Language Accommodation Needs in the Custodial Interrogation Stage of the Criminal Justice System

443

1.

Current State of Interrogation Policy with Regard to LEP Populations

444

1.1.

Lack of Compliance with Legal Obligations to Provide Meaningful Language Access in Custodial Interrogations

445

1.2.

International Court of Justice Recognized Unequal Treatment of LEP Persons in U.S. Custodial Interrogations

446

1.3.

Lack of Competent Interpreter Services Produces Unreliable Evidence, False Confessions, and Wrongful Convictions

446

2.

The Miranda Rights: Protection against Involuntary Statements and False Confessions in Custodial Interrogation

448

2.1.

Pre-Miranda (1966) History

449

2.2.

Miranda v. Arizona, 1966: The Miranda Rights

449

2.2.1.

Stricter Criteria for Evaluating Legal Invocation of Miranda Rights

450

2.3.

Miranda Rights Comprehension

452

2.3.1.

Miranda Comprehension Requires Knowledge of the U.S. Criminal Justice System

453

2.3.2.

Miranda Rights Complexity

455

2.4.

High Correlation between Noncomprehension of Miranda Rights and Miranda Waiver

462

2.5.

High Correlation Between Lack of Miranda Comprehension and False Confession

463

3.

The Need for Court Interpretation Standards in Custodial Interrogations

463

3.1.

Goals of the Custodial Interrogation

464

3.2.

False Confessions: An Increasingly Recognized Phenomenon

465

3.3.

Pervasive Belief that Interrogation Tactics Do Not Cause False Confessions

466

3.4.

Recognition of Vulnerable Persons Who Require Extra Consideration in Miranda Rights Advisals and Custodial Interrogations

467

3.5.

Situation-Based Factors in False Confessions

468

3.6.

LEPs Should Be Considered a Vulnerable Class Requiring Accommodations and Extra Consideration

469

4.

Barrier to Justice for LEP Suspects: Increased Use of Police Officers as Interpreters and Foreign Language Interrogators in Custodial Interrogations

471

4.1.

The Use of Putative Law Enforcement (PLE) Interpreters Systematically Obstructs Justice for LEP Suspects

473

4.2.

The Use of Putative Law Enforcement (PLE) Interpreters Violates Professional Interpreting Standards as Well as Legal Requirements

477

4.2.1.

PLE Interpreters as Transcribers of Evidence Should Be Prohibited

478

4.3.

PLE Interpreters Heighten Coercive Effects of Interrogation for LEP Suspects

478

4.3.1.

Switching Footing Enhances Coercion and Subverts Miranda

479

4.4.

Denying Language Accommodations Enhances Interrogator Power

480

4.4.1.

Fear and Anxiety Compromise Language Proficiency

481

4.5.

Need to Prohibit the Use of PLE Interpreters in Custodial Interrogations

482

5.

Cultural Beliefs and Assumptions Conflict with Understanding the Miranda Rights

483

5.1.

LEP Suspect Dependence on Cultural Schema and Knowledge of Home Country's Criminal. Justice System

483

5.2.

LEP Suspects of Mexican Origin: Fear of Police and Torture

485

5.3.

Culturally Determined Tendencies of LEP Suspects

486

6.

Sociolinguistic Effects of the Custodial Interrogation on the LEP Suspect

488

6.1.

The Asymmetrical Power Relationship and Its Effects on LEP Suspects

488

6.2.

Pattern of Acquiescent Responses Used by LEP Suspects

488

6.3.

LEP and Other Marginalized Populations Use Indirect Imperative and Polite Interrogative Forms

489

6.4.

Cross-Cultural Communication and Custodial Interrogations of LEP Suspects

490

6.5.

LEP Suspects Accommodate Nonproficient Police Speech for Social Approval

491

6.5.1.

Inadequate Language Accommodations Increase Police Power by Forcing LEP Suspects to Assume the Role of Language Assistant or Mediator

492

7.

Interrogation Tactics and the LEP Suspect

493

7.1.

Pre-Miranda Techniques and Conditions Used to Increase Suspect Vulnerability

493

7.1.1.

Isolation and Duration of Interrogation Promotes Anxiety and Enhances Officers' Coercive Power

493

7.1.2.

Mirandizing Suspects in a State of Sleep Inertia or Sleep Deprivation

494

7.1.3.

Handcuffs or Similar Restraints Increase Police Power and Suspect Dependence

494

7.1.4.

Failure to Inform the Suspect of Charges

495

7.2.

Tactics that Minimize the Importance of Miranda Rights

496

7.2.1.

Prefaces to Miranda Rights that Minimize or Countermand Protections

496

7.2.2.

Rapport Building to Distract from the Adversarial Nature of Interrogation and Importance of Miranda Rights

500

7.2.3.

Linguistic Manipulation of Waiver Question

501

7.2.4.

Verbal Dominance and Failure to Address Requests for Clarification and Functional Invocations

502

7.2.5.

Not Providing Ample Time to Contemplate Waiver

505

7.3.

General Interrogation Tactics

506

7.3.1.

Minimization Tactics

506

7.3.2.

Maximization Tactics

507

7.4.

Question Types

512

7.4.1.

Yes/No and Other Close-Ended Questions

513

7.4.2.

Leading Questions

514

7.4.3.

Tag Questions

515

7.4.4.

Compound and Compound-Complex Questions

516

7.4.5.

Serial Questions

517

7.4.6.

Monologues

518

8.

The Construction of False Confessions in Cases Involving LEP Suspects

518

8.1.

The Case of Mr. Juan Lara

520

8.2.

The Case of Mr. Reynaldo Ramos

522

9.

Best Practice Recommendations

525

9.1.

Law Enforcement Should Be Required to Use PCI Interpreter ervices for All Custodial Interrogations and Miranda Advisals

525

9.2.

All Custodial Interrogations and Miranda Advisals Should Be Audio and Video Recorded to Safeguard Suspect Rights, Promote Transparency, Reduce Coercive Practices, and Provide Pertinent Information to Triers of Fact

525

9.2.1.

Failure to Record Perpetuates Overly Coercive Police Practices and Heightens the Risk of False and Unreliable Confessions

526

9.2.1.1.

Positioning of the Interpreter in Recorded Custodial Interrogations

527

9.3.

Judges and Attorneys Should Be Skeptical of Evidence Produced from Interrogations Involving LEP Suspects When Police Interpreters or Alleged "Bilingual" Interrogators Are Used

527

9.4.

In the Evaluation of Involuntary Statements or False Confessions, Courts Should Take into Account the Cultural and Linguistic Factors That Intensify LEP Suspects' Vulnerability to Coercive Police Practices, and Should Rely on Expert Opinion

528

9.5.

Judges Should Be Aware of the Testing Requirements Used to Validate Allegedly Bilingual Officers and Seek Insight into the Legitimacy of These Testing Instruments through Expert Testimony

528

9.6.

A Linguistically Sound Version of the Miranda Rights Should Be Developed and Standardized for Use in All Police Agencies in the U.S.

529

9.7.

A Miranda Rights Advisal Should Be Crafted for LEP Persons and Other Vulnerable Groups

529

9.8.

Replace Close-Ended Question Types in Miranda Rights Advisals with Open-Ended Questions That Invoke Narrative Responses

530

Unit 4

LEP Guidance for Judges and Attorneys

ch. 21

Judges' Guide to Working with Interpreters and LEP Litigants

533

1.

Introduction: The Judge as Guarantor of Linguistic Access

533

2.

The Role of the Court Interpreter

534

3.

Legal Obligations to Appoint a Court Interpreter

534

3.1.

Constitutional Right to an Interpreter

534

3.1.1.

State Criminal Proceedings

535

3.1.2.

State Civil Proceedings

535

3.2.

Statutory Right to an Interpreter in Federal Criminal and Civil Proceedings

536

3.3.

Right to an Interpreter under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

536

4.

Evaluating LEP Litigants' Language Accommodation Needs

536

4.1.

BICS and CALP: An Important Framework for Understanding the Need for Advanced English Language Proficiency to Fully Participate in the Legal Setting

537

4.2.

Fundamentals Model Voir Dire for Eliciting an LEP Person's Relevant Sociolinguistic Background Information and a Language Sample

537

4.2.1.

Sociolinguistic Background Factors

539

4.2.2.

Assessing the Language Sample

542

4.2.2.1.

Evaluating the Narrative Response

542

4.2.2.2.

Assessing the Cross-Examination Responses

544

4.2.2.3.

Reviewing the Answers to Legal Terminology

545

4.3.

Making the Final Decision to Appoint an Interpreter

546

4.3.1.

Judges Should Employ a Rebuttable Presumption and Err on the Side of Caution

547

4.3.2.

An LEP Person's Belief That He Does Not Need an Interpreter Is Unreliable

547

4.3.3.

Do Not Rely on Attorneys' Assurance That There Is No Language Problem or Failure to Request an Interpreter

548

4.3.4.

Any Requests for Interpreters Should be Considered Bona Fide and Granted

548

4.4.

Court Interpreters Should Be Appointed in All Stages of the Legal Process and All Legal and Quasi-Legal Proceedings

549

4.5.

Court Interpreters Must Be Provided at No Charge

549

4.6.

Waiver of a Court Interpreter

550

4.6.1.

Who Can Waive the Right to An Interpreter?

550

4.6.2.

Ensuring a Knowing, Intelligent, and Voluntary Waiver of an Interpreter

550

5.

Judges Must Appoint Competent, Certified or Qualified Court Interpreters

551

5.1.

Basic Knowledge and Skill Required by Court Interpreters

551

5.2.

Certified Interpreters are Presumed Qualified and Should Be Preferred

551

5.2.1.

Postpone Proceedings until a Certified Interpreter Can Be Made Available

552

5.2.2.

Maintain Database of Certified and Otherwise Qualified Interpreters

553

5.3.

Selection and Appointment of Otherwise Qualified, Noncertified Interpreters

553

5.3.1.

A Review of Federal Court Categories for "Otherwise Qualified" Interpreters

554

5.3.2.

Systematic Procedure to Assess Noncertified Interpreters' Qualifications

554

5.4.

Voir Dire to Determine Interpreter Competency

557

5.5.

Making the Final Decision Regarding Noncertified Interpreter Competence

562

5.5.1.

Appoint Interpreters Who Speak the Language of the Client

562

5.5.2.

Judges and Attorneys Should Not Serve as Interpreters

563

5.5.3.

Translators Are Not Interpreters

564

5.6.

Delegate Authority to Determine Noncertified Interpreter Competency

564

5.7.

Challenges to Qualifications of Interpreters

564

5.8.

Removal of Interpreter

565

5.9.

Telephonic Interpreters

565

6.

Interpreting Basics

565

6.1.

Modes of Interpretation and Their Use in the Legal Setting

565

6.2.

Sociolinguistic Issues

567

6.2.1.

Meaning-Based versus Literal Interpretation

567

6.2.2.

Bridging the Cultural Gap

568

6.2.3.

Monitoring Interpretation in Sexual Assault Cases

569

7.

Ensuring Quality Interpretation during Court Proceedings

570

7.1.

Proper Court Interpreting Protocol

570

7.1.1.

Interpreters Should Interpret Everything without Modifications, Alterations, or Omissions to Achieve Legal Equivalence and Meaningful Comprehension

570

7.1.2.

Use Qualified Bilingual Personnel or an Interpreter from Start to Finish

571

7.1.3.

LEP Litigants Should Be Addressed Directly

572

7.1.4.

Interpreters Should Only Interpret for One Party at a Time

572

7.1.5.

Judges Should Instruct All Legal Actors to Modify Their Speech Patterns

573

7.1.6.

Proper Use of Relay Interpreting

573

7.1.7.

LEP Witness and Defendant of the Same Language

573

7.1.8.

Interpreters Should Interpret Entire Utterance for LEP Persons Who Codeswitch

574

7.1.9.

Inclusion of Bilingual Jurors

574

7.2.

Addressing Interpreters' Needs in Order to Minimize Errors

575

7.2.1.

Provide Appropriate Case Information for Interpreter Preparation

575

7.2.2.

Ensure Timely Appointment of Interpreters

576

7.2.3.

Use Team Interpreting or Rotate Interpreters

576

7.2.4.

Address Interpreters' Need for Audibility and Close Proximity to Speaker

578

7.2.5.

Grant Requests for Repetition or Rephrasing

579

7.2.6.

Permit Interpreters Access to Needed Resources

579

7.2.7.

Permit and Encourage Interpreters to Take Notes in All Proceedings

580

7.3.

Monitoring Interpreter Performance

580

7.4.

Handling Interpreting Error

581

7.4.1.

Self-Corrections of Interpreting Error

581

7.4.2.

Objections to Interpretation

581

7.5.

Seek Guidance from Interpreters as Language Access Specialists

582

7.5.1.

Be Cautious about Seeking Expert Cultural Advice from Interpreters

582

7.5.2.

Assist Interpreters to Stay within Their Scope of Practice

583

8.

Preliminary Instructions to Court Actors, Jury, Witnesses, and LEP Litigants Regarding the Use of Interpreters in Court

583

8.1.

General Instructions to the Court Regarding the Role of the Interpreter

584

8.2.

Instructions to the LEP Defendant Regarding the Role of the Interpreter

584

8.3.

Instructions to Witnesses Regarding the Role of the Interpreter

585

8.4.

Instructions for Jurors Regarding the Role of the Interpreter and Challenge to In-Court Interpretations

586

9.

Admitting Foreign Language Evidence: Documents, Recordings, and Transcription/Translations

587

9.1.

Addressing Forensic Transcription/Translation Disputes

588

9.1.1.

Best Judicial Practice in Addressing Transcription/Translation Disputes

589

9.1.2.

Judicial Appointment of Independent FTT Specialist

589

9.2.

Transcriptions/Translations as Best Evidence

590

9.3.

Playing Foreign Language Recordings in Court

590

9.4.

Jury Instructions for the Presentation of Transcription/Translations as Evidence

591

9.4.1.

Accuracy of Transcription/Translation Not in Dispute

591

9.4.2.

Accuracy of Transcription/Translation in Dispute

592

10.

Ethical Considerations

593

11.

Training on Interpretation Issues

593

12.

Interpreting Technology

594

ch. 22

Attorneys' Guide to Working with Interpreters and LEP Litigants

595

1.

Introduction

595

2.

The Role of the Attorney

596

3.

The Attorney and the LEP Client

598

3.1.

Attorneys Need to Inform LEP Clients about the U.S. Criminal Justice System

599

3.2.

LEP Defendants Rely on Inapplicable Cultural Schema Regarding the U.S. Criminal Justice System

603

3.3.

Attorneys Must Be Aware of Culturally Determined Tendencies and Behaviors among LEP Clients

604

3.3.1.

Attorneys Should Modify Communication Style with LEP Clients and Monitor Comprehension

605

4.

Attorneys Must Ensure the Provision of an Interpreter throughout the Continuum of the Legal Process

606

4.1.

Legal Foundations for the Appointment of Interpreters

606

4.1.1.

Protect the Linguistic Presence of the LEP Individual

607

4.2.

Understand the Interpreter's Role as Language Intermediary

607

4.2.1.

Become Familiar with Interpreter Codes of Ethics

607

4.2.2.

Do Not Ask Interpreters to Perform Duties Outside of the Scope of Their Role as Interpreter

608

4.2.2.1.

Do Not Rely on the Interpreter as an Expert in Areas That Require Expert Testimony Outside of Interpretation and Translation

608

4.2.3.

Provide an Interpreter for LEP Persons throughout All Interactions with Clients as Well as for All Out-of-Court Events

609

4.2.4.

Assess the Client's Need for an Interpreter

610

4.2.5.

Determine the Client's Dominant Language and Language Variety

611

4.2.6.

Assure the Interpreter's Neutrality and Confidentiality

612

4.2.7.

Ensure that the Interpreter is Certified or Has Expert Interpreting Qualifications in the Language of the Client

612

4.2.8.

Ensure that the Interpreter and Client Can Communicate and That the Interpreter Is Able to Effectively Interpret the Client's Language

613

4.2.9.

Guarantee That an Interpreter Communicates Effectively in English

614

4.2.10.

Ensure Interpreter Has Subject Matter Expertise

614

4.2.11.

Be Cautious in the Selection of an Interpreter

614

4.2.12.

Ensure Interpreters Are Provided the Ethical Canons from the Professional Entities Involved in the Case

615

4.2.13.

Request That the Court Appoint an Interpreter Free of Charge

616

4.2.14.

Petition for Preauthorization of Interpreter Fees for Out-of-Court Interpreter Use

616

4.2.15.

Schedule the Interpreter Promptly

617

4.2.16.

Use the Same Interpreter for all Client Visits Whenever Possible

617

4.2.17.

Attorneys Should Not Serve as Interpreters

617

4.3.

Attorney's Obligation to Explain the Role of an Interpreter to the LEP Client

618

4.3.1.

Prepare the LEP Client for Working with an Interpreter in Court or in a Legal Setting

618

4.4.

Attorney's Responsibilities in Working with an Interpreter

619

4.4.1.

Assist the Interpreter to Prepare for Court Proceedings

619

4.4.2.

Request That an Interpreter Prepare for Interpretation of Slang, Idiomatic Speech, Code, or Jargon of the Client

620

4.4.3.

Adjust Speech for Ease of Interpreting

621

4.4.4.

Ensure That an Interpreter Conveys Pragmatic Force

621

4.4.5.

Uphold the Interpreter and Attorney-Client Privilege and Confidentiality

622

5.

Preparation for Hearings and Trial

623

5.1.

Attorneys Should Advise LEP Clients of Consular Rights

623

5.1.1.

Failure to Utilize Consular Assistance May Amount to Ineffective Assistance of Counsel

625

5.2.

Request the Translation of all Pertinent Documents to Which a Native English Speaker Would Have Access

626

5.3.

Order an Independent Transcription/Translation of the Defendant's Statement

626

5.4.

Request That all Proceedings Be Recorded

626

5.5.

Request a Bicultural/Bilingual Expert for All Evaluations

627

5.5.1.

Obtain an Independent Psychological or Other Expert Evaluation

627

5.6.

Jury Considerations

629

5.7.

Specific Arguments Regarding Custodial Interrogation, Miranda, and Consent Searches

630

5.7.1.

Custodial Interrogations and Consent Searches

630

5.7.2.

Challenges to Miranda Waivers

632

6.

Steps for Attorneys at Hearings and Trial

633

6.1.

Request That Interpreter Qualifications Be Enumerated on the Record

633

6.2.

Ensure That the Interpreter Was Administered the Statutorily Required Oath

633

6.3.

Request Team Interpreting

634

6.3.1.

Request an Interpreter for Counsel Table

634

6.4.

Request a Standby Interpreter

634

6.5.

Ensure the Client's Right to an Appeal by Properly Making a Record

635

6.6.

Monitor the Interpreter's Performance in Court and All Other Legal Events

635

6.6.1.

Types of Interpreter Errors

636

6.7.

Document Request for the Interpreter and All Concerns Regarding Professional Relationship with the Interpreter

637

6.8.

Educate the Judge and Jury about Important Cross-Cultural Communication Issues That May Interfere with Judging Credibility or Trustworthiness

637

7.

Conclusion

638

Unit 5

Management of Court Interpreter Services

ch. 23

Management, Recruitment, and Assessment of Interpreters

641

1.

Need for Establishment of the Office of Court Interpreting Services and the Interpreter Supervisor

641

2.

Model Office of Court Interpreter Services

641

3.

Ideal Interpreter Supervisor

642

3.1.

Desirable Personal Characteristics

643

3.2.

Assignment and Supervisory Functions

643

3.3.

Recruitment

644

3.3.1.

The Recruitment Process

644

3.3.2.

Certified Interpreters

644

3.3.3.

Noncertified Languages

646

4.

Assessment Procedures

651

4.1.

Interview

652

4.2.

Biographical Sketch

653

4.3.

Standardized Written Proficiency Examinations

653

4.4.

Shadowing

654

4.5.

Memory Test

655

4.6.

Back-Translation Technique

656

4.6.1.

Procedure

657

4.6.2.

Scoring

658

4.7.

Other Assessment Possibilities

658

ch. 24

Orientation, Training, and Monitoring of Interpreters

659

1.

Orientation of New Interpreters

659

1.1.

General Orientation Procedure

660

1.2.

Emergency Orientation Procedure

661

2.

Short-Term and Inservice Training

662

3.

Long-Term Training

664

4.

Monitoring of Interpreters

665

ch. 25

Administrative Issues

669

1.

Assignment Procedures

669

1.1.

Availability Problems

671

1.2.

Emergency Assignments

671

1.3.

Management of Translation Services

672

2.

Records and Statistical Reporting

674

2.1.

Interpreter Assignments Database

674

2.2.

Electronic Calendars

674

2.3.

Invoices or Payroll Claims

675

3.

Fee Schedules

675

3.1.

Comparison of Fees

678

3.2.

Pay Rates and Studies

679

3.3.

Staff Interpreter Benefits

682

4.

Management of Multidefendant Hearings

683

5.

Practical Aspects of Language Access to the Courts

685

5.1.

The Physical Layout of the Court

685

5.2.

Tracking Requests for Accommodations and Interpreted Court Proceedings

686

5.3.

"Who's Who in Court"

686

5.4.

The Role of the Court Interpreter

686

5.5.

Interpreter's Oath

687

Unit 6

Language and the Interpreter

ch. 26

The Nature of Language

691

1.

The Structure of Language

692

1.1.

Phonology

693

1.2.

Morphology

694

1.2.1.

Morphology and the Creation of New Words

695

1.3.

Syntax

696

1.3.1.

Universal Grammar

699

1.4.

Semantics

699

2.

Language Acquisition

700

2.1.

Stages of Childhood Language Acquisition

701

2.2.

Second Language Acquisition

701

2.2.1.

Bilingualism

702

3.

Sociolinguistics

703

3.1.

Dell Hymes' SPEAKING Model

704

3.1.1.

The SPEAKING Model Applied to a Custodial Interrogation of an LEP Suspect

704

3.2.

Intercultural Communication

706

4.

Sociolinguistic Variables That Impact Language Proficiency

708

4.1.

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (BICS and CALP)

708

4.2.

Age of Arrival in the U.S.

710

4.3.

Occupation (Nonlanguage-Dependent Labor versus Language-Dependent Labor)

710

4.4.

Educational Attainment

711

4.5.

Masking Language Deficiency: "Linguistic Bravado"

712

4.6.

Codeswitching

712

4.6.1.

Codeswitching and Language Proficiency

713

5.

Defining and Assessing Language Proficiency

714

5.1.

Communicative Competence Model

715

5.1.1.

Grammatical Competence

715

5.1.2.

Discourse Competence

716

5.1.3.

Sociocultural Competence

716

5.1.4.

Strategic Competence

717

5.2.

Measuring Language Proficiency in High-Stakes Situations

718

5.3.

Oral Proficiency Instruments (OPIs) for Language Assessment

718

5.3.1.

Oral Proficiency Scales: The Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) and the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL)

719

6.

Forensic Linguistics

723

ch. 27

Aspects of Meaning

725

1.

Language and Meaning

725

2.

Linguistic Meaning

726

2.1.

Nuances of Words

727

2.2.

Grammatical Usage and Meaning

727

2.3.

Lexical Variation and Meaning

729

2.3.1.

Semantic Fields

731

2.4.

Language Variation

732

2.4.1.

Language Varieties and Interpretation

732

2.4.2.

Speech Repertoire

734

2.5.

Cultural Meaning

735

2.6.

Culturally Bound Terms

736

3.

Speaker Meaning

737

3.1.

Metaphors

737

3.2.

Idioms

738

3.2.1.

The Interpreter and Idioms

739

3.3.

Proverbs

740

3.4.

Sarcasm and Irony

741

4.

Speaker Meaning and Pragmatics

741

4.1.

Speaker Meaning and Communicative Intent

742

4.2.

The Importance of Context

744

5.

Paralinguistic Features

745

5.1.

Gestures

746

5.1.1.

Learned Gestures

746

5.1.2.

Instinctive Gestures

747

ch. 28

Characteristics of Legal Language

749

1.

Introduction

749

2.

History and Major Influences

752

2.1.

Anglo-Saxon Oral Tradition and Language

753

2.2.

The Catholic Church

753

2.3.

The Norman Conquest

754

2.4.

The Rise of the Guild

755

2.4.1.

Reliance on Formbooks

755

2.4.2.

Padding

755

ch. 29

Variation and Complexity of Legal Language

757

1.

The Duke Project

758

2.

The Gonzalez Study

759

2.1.

Register

759

2.1.1.

Register Determinants

760

2.2.

Complexity Study

762

2.2.1.

Readability Assessment

762

2.2.2.

Lexical Examination

763

2.2.3.

Structural Study

764

2.2.4.

Legal Expression

765

3.

Implications for Court Interpreters

765

ch. 30

Questioning Styles, Witness Testimony, and the Court Interpreter

767

1.

Introduction

767

2.

Manipulating Testimony

767

3.

Questioning Styles in the Courtroom

768

3.1.

Testimony Styles: Narrative versus Fragmented Speech

768

3.2.

Altering Questions and Responses in the Courtroom

769

3.2.1.

Altering English Tag Questions

770

3.2.2.

Altering English Modal Interrogatives

771

3.2.3.

Altering English Discourse Markers

771

3.2.4.

Altering Hedges and Fillers

772

3.3.

Implications for Interpreters

773

4.

Powerful versus Powerless Testimony

774

4.1.

Language Functions and Powerful and Powerless Speech

774

4.2.

Powerful and Powerless Testimony: Implications for Court Interpreters

775

4.3.

The Berk-Seligson Study

775

ch. 31

Categories of Interpreter Error: The University of Arizona Study

779

1.

Introduction

779

2.

Error Categories

780

2.1.

Literal Translation

780

2.2.

Inadequate Language Proficiency

781

2.2.1.

Grammatical Errors

781

2.2.2.

Lexical Errors

782

2.3.

Errors in Register Conservation

783

2.4.

Distortion

784

2.5.

Omission

785

2.6.

Added Information

786

2.7.

Protocol, Procedure, and Ethics

787

2.8.

Nonconservation of Paralinguistic Elements, Hedges, and Fillers

788

3.

Conclusion

788

Unit 7

Interpretation Theory and Practice

ch. 32

Translation and Interpretation

791

1.

Chapter Overview

791

2.

Definition of Terms

791

3.

Oral Communication

793

3.1.

Speaking Circuit

793

3.2.

Oral Comprehension

795

4.

Interlingual Communication

798

4.1.

Interpreting Process

801

4.2.

Obstacles to Interlingual Communication

803

4.2.1.

Ambiguity

803

4.2.2.

Different Semantic Area

804

4.2.3.

Less Precision in TL

805

4.2.4.

Different Perspectives

805

4.2.5.

Idioms

806

4.2.6.

Metaphors

807

4.2.7.

Syntax and Style

807

5.

Techniques for Problem Solving

808

6.

Incremental Intervention

811

7.

Conclusion

812

ch. 33

From Theory to Practice

813

1.

Models of Translation and Interpreting

813

1.1.

Triangular Models

813

1.2.

Paralinguistic Models

815

1.3.

Information Processing Models

815

1.4.

The Effort Models

821

1.5.

Application to Court Interpreting

822

2.

Human Information Processing

823

2.1.

Stage Theory

823

2.2.

ACT Model

827

2.3.

Parallel Distributive Processing

830

2.4.

Constraints of ACT* and PDP

832

2.5.

The Simultaneous Human Information Processing Model (SHIP)

832

2.5.1.

Description of SHIP's Components

833

2.5.2.

Levels of Competence

838

2.5.3.

Assumptions of SHIP

839

2.5.4.

Processing in SHIP

842

2.6.

Information Processing Today

843

2.6.1.

Component Processes of Interpreting

844

2.6.2.

Multitasking and Interpreting

849

2.6.3.

Processing Speed in Working Memory

850

3.

Expert Performance: How Interpreters Succeed in Getting the Message Across

851

ch. 34

Simultaneous Interpretation

853

1.

Definition

853

2.

Simultaneous Interpreting in the Courtroom

854

3.

Process of Simultaneous Interpretation

855

4.

Strategies of SI

856

4.1.

Analysis

857

4.2.

Prediction or Anticipation

857

4.3.

Numerical Information

859

4.4.

Decalage

860

4.5.

Queuing

861

4.6.

Self-Monitoring

861

4.7.

Graphic Depiction of SI Strategies

862

5.

Implications for Training in SI

867

5.1.

Dual-Tasking Exercises

868

5.2.

Analysis Exercises

869

6.

Running Summary

869

ch. 35

Consecutive Interpretation

871

1.

Definition

871

2.

Skills Required

872

2.1.

Listening

872

2.2.

Prediction

874

2.3.

Memory

875

2.3.1.

Strategies for Enhancing Retention

875

2.3.2.

Forgetting

877

2.4.

Notetaking

878

2.4.1.

Interpreter Notetaking System

879

2.4.2.

Techniques

880

2.4.3.

Examples

880

2.4.4.

Application to Court Interpreting

884

2.4.5.

Principles of Notetaking for Court Interpreting

885

2.5.

Situational Control

886

3.

Exercises for Improving Skills

890

3.1.

Exercises to Enhance Listening/Attending Skills

890

3.2.

Memory-Building Exercises

891

ch. 36

Sight Translation

893

1.

Definition

893

2.

Elements of Sight Translation

894

2.1.

Differences between ST and Other Modes of Interpreting

894

2.2.

Conservation

895

2.3.

Written Language

895

2.4.

Reading Comprehension

895

2.5.

Prediction

896

3.

Need for More Research

896

4.

Sight Translation in the Judicial Setting

897

4.1.

English Documents

898

4.2.

Non-English Documents

898

5.

Skills Required

900

5.1.

Full Command of Working Languages

901

5.2.

Public Speaking

901

5.3.

Mental Agility

901

6.

Process of Sight Translation

902

7.

Exercises

902

7.1.

Public Speaking Exercises

903

7.2.

Reading Ahead in Text

903

7.3.

Analytical Skills

903

ch. 37

Document Translation

907

1.

Translation of Court Documents

907

1.1.

Professional Translation Standards

907

1.2.

The Translation Process

908

2.

Types of Documents

909

2.1.

Vital Documents

909

3.

Achieving DOJ "Meaningful Communication and Access" Standards

911

4.

Other Translated Documents

915

5.

Format

917

6.

Resources

917

7.

Translation Protocol

920

8.

Certification and Notarization

921

Unit 8

Practical Considerations and Tasks

ch. 38

Introduction to the Courtroom and Legal Actors

925

1.

The Physical Courtroom

925

2.

The Legal Arena

926

2.1.

Counsel Table

926

2.2.

Jury Box

930

2.3.

Witness Stand

931

2.4.

Judge's Bench

931

3.

Lockup

932

4.

Legal Actors

933

4.1.

The Judge

933

4.2.

Courtroom Clerk

933

4.3.

Court Reporter

934

4.4.

Bailiffs: Marshals, Sheriffs, and Other Officers of the Court

934

4.5.

Defense and Prosecution Attorneys

934

4.6.

The Jurors

936

4.7.

The Witnesses

936

ch. 39

Pragmatics of Judicial Proceedings and the Interpreter

939

1.

Initial Preparation

939

2.

Information Gathering and Pretrial Preparation

940

2.1.

The Need for Interpreters to Be Proactive: Gathering Information

940

2.2.

Preparation as an Aspect of Ethics

941

2.2.1.

Misunderstanding of the Interpreter's Need for Preparation

941

2.3.

Importance of Punctuality

943

2.4.

Interpreter Resources: The Use of Dictionaries and Glossaries in Court

943

2.5.

Notetaking: An Essential Tool of the Interpreter

943

2.5.1.

Notetaking during Grand Jury Proceedings

944

2.6.

Prehearing Interview of a Defense Attorney for a Specific Case

944

2.6.1.

Pretrial Language Assessment Interview of the Defendant

945

2.6.2.

Importance of the Pretrial Language Assessment: Possible Outcomes

945

2.6.3.

Explanation of the Role of the Interpreter and the Interpreting Process

948

2.7.

Inquiring about Witnesses: Interviewing the Prosecutor

949

2.8.

Recommending Team Interpreting

949

3.

The Interpreter as Language Access Specialist

950

4.

The Interpreter's Role in Criminal Proceedings

951

4.1.

Jury Selection

951

4.2.

Pretrial Motion

952

4.3.

The Trial Phase

953

4.4.

Opening Statement

953

4.5.

English-Speaking Witness Examination

954

4.5.1.

Defense Witness Cross-Examination

955

4.5.2.

Communication between Interpreter and Defendant

955

4.5.3.

Excusing the Witness

955

4.6.

Examination of an LEP Witness

955

4.6.1.

Interpreting Witness-Stand Testimony: Consecutive Mode

956

4.6.2.

Professional Strictures Regarding Onsite Simultaneous Interpretation of a Sound File in Court

956

4.6.3.

Interpreting for Nonproficient Speakers of a Foreign Language in Cases in Which Speaker Error Is Key to the Effective Use of Testimony by Legal Actors

957

4.7.

Closing Argument

959

5.

Instructions to the Jury

960

6.

The Verdict

961

7.

Sentencing

961

7.1.

The Interpreter's Role at Sentencing

962

8.

Communication with the Assignment Office

962

9.

Responding to Challenges to Interpretation

963

10.

Conclusion

963

ch. 40

Forensic Transcription and Translation

965

1.

Introduction to Forensic Transcription and Translation

965

1.1.

FTT: A Two-fold Process

966

1.2.

FTT: A Developing Hybrid

967

1.3.

Critical Need for Reliable FTT in Custodial and Noncustodial Interrogations

968

2.

Poor Quality FTT Produced by Untrained, Noncertified Bilingual Personnel

971

2.1.

Failure to Recognize the Duty to Preserve Source/Minority Language in the Transcript

976

2.2.

Ethical and Legal Dilemmas Caused by the Lack of Standardization

977

3.

Need for Legitimization of FTT as a Branch of Legal Interpretation and Translation

978

3.1.

Hindrances to the Formal Recognition of FTT as a Subfield of Legal Interpretation

979

3.2.

Need for Certification in FTT

980

3.3.

Master-Level FTTS Certification

981

4.

Model FTTS Work Examples

982

5.

Legal Standards for the Admissibility of FTT Products

987

5.1.

Rule 901 (a) Authentication

987

5.2.

Audibility and Intelligibility of the Recording

987

5.3.

Rule 702 Admissibility of Expert Testimony

988

5.3.1.

Required Qualifications for FTTSs to Serve as Expert Witnesses

988

5.3.2.

Establishing the Use of Empirically Sound Linguistic Methods in Producing the FTT Product

989

5.3.3.

Responding to Cross-Examination

989

5.4.

Disputes Regarding Accuracy of Transcription/Translations

990

5.5.

Special Circumstances: Translation of Argot, Foreign Drug, or Gang Codes

990

6.

Professional and Ethical Standards of FTT

991

6.1.

Overarching Responsibility of the FTTS

991

6.2.

FTT Transcription Goal: Meaningful Legal Equivalence (Mirror the Tape)

991

6.3.

FTT Translation Goals

992

6.3.1.

Meaningful Legal Equivalence:"Mirror the Transcription"

992

6.3.2.

Conservation of Speaker Error and Nonstandard Usage

992

7.

Required Knowledge, Skills, and Training for FTT

993

7.1.

Primary Skills for the FTTS: Language Proficiency, Cultural, and Linguistic Knowledge

994

7.1.1.

Master-Level FTTS

995

7.2.

Required Secondary Skills for the FTTS: Perception, Cognitive Abilities, and Personal Traits

996

7.3.

Recommended Training for FTT Certification

997

7.4.

Master-Level FTTS Recommended Training and Credentials

997

8.

Recommended Protocol for Forensic Transcription and Translation

999

8.1.

Preliminary Steps

1000

8.1.1.

Ethical Obligations in Accepting or Declining an Assignment

1001

8.1.2.

Extraordinary Circumstances and Ethical Considerations

1001

8.1.3.

Assessing the Scope of Work

1002

8.1.4.

Listening to/Viewing the Recording

1002

8.1.5.

Using a Team Approach

1002

8.1.6.

Estimates and Costs

1003

8.1.7.

FTT Work Requiring FTT Master-Level Expert Analysis and Testimony

1004

8.1.8.

Accepting the Assignment

1005

8.2.

Phase 1 of the FTT Process: Transcription

1006

8.2.1.

Preparing for the Transcription Process

1006

8.2.2.

Transcribing Audio/Video Recordings

1008

8.3.

Phase 2 of the FTT Process: Translation

1022

8.3.1.

Preparing for Translation

1023

8.3.2.

Performing the Translation

1025

8.3.3.

FTTS Notes

1034

8.4.

Phase 3 of the FTT Process: Final Product

1034

8.4.1.

Expect to Defend the Forensic Transcription and Translation in Court

1035

8.4.2.

Model Transcription/Translation Document: Formatting and Application of Protocol and Legend

1035

8.4.3.

FTT Introductory Briefing

1036

8.4.4.

Certification of the Transcription/Translation

1037

8.4.5.

Need for Reform in the Court Certification Process of FTT Documents

1038

9.

Recommended Forensic Transcription/Translation Legend

1039

10.

Policy Recommendations for the Professionalization of FTT Practice and Regulation

1041

ch. 41

Using Language Resources and References

1043

1.

Printed Resources

1043

1.1.

Locating Reference Books and Materials

1043

1.2.

How to Use Dictionaries

1044

1.3.

The Media

1046

2.

The Internet

1047

2.1.

Internet Search Strategies

1048

2.2.

Online Dictionaries and Resources

1049

3.

Human Resources as Language References

1050

3.1.

Use of the Witness as a Language Resource

1051

3.2.

Attending Court Proceedings

1051

3.3.

Conferring with Colleagues

1052

3.4.

Contacting Experts

1053

4.

Glossaries

1054

4.1.

Need for Personal Glossaries

1054

4.2.

Terminology Defined

1054

4.3.

Compiling Glossaries

1055

ch. 42

Technology and the Interpreter

1059

1.

High Technology (Tech) in Court Interpreting

1059

1.1.

High Tech Courtrooms

1059

1.1.1.

Computer Applications

1061

1.1.2.

Evidence Presentation Component

1061

1.1.3.

Display Monitors, Whiteboards, Screens, and Courtroom Cameras

1061

1.1.4.

Videoconferencing Component

1062

1.1.5.

Teleconferencing

1062

1.1.6.

Assistive Listening Devices and Interpreter Audio Equipment

1063

1.1.7.

Radio Frequency versus IR Systems

1063

1.1.8.

Digital Court Recordings

1064

1.2.

Telephonic Interpreting in Federal Courts

1064

1.3.

Federal Law and the Recording of Court Proceedings

1065

1.4.

Case Management and Related Technology

1066

1.5.

Technology in the State Courts

1067

1.6.

Remote Testimony

1068

1.7.

Electronic Discovery

1070

2.

Technology for the Legal Interpreter and Translator

1070

2.1.

In-Court Simultaneous Interpreting Equipment

1071

2.2.

Real-Time Court Reporting Transcripts

1073

2.3.

Overhead Projection of Documents and Other Exhibits