Defining rape : emerging obligations for states under international law? / by Maria Eriksson.
2011
KZ7162 .E75 2011 (Map It)
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Details
Author
Title
Defining rape : emerging obligations for states under international law? / by Maria Eriksson.
Published
Leiden ; Boston : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2011.
Call Number
KZ7162 .E75 2011
ISBN
9789004202634 (hardback : alk. paper)
9004202633 (hardback : alk. paper)
9004202633 (hardback : alk. paper)
Description
x, 613 pages ; 25 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)753351091
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references (pages [577]-604) and index.
Record Appears in
Table of Contents
pt. I
Introduction
1
1.
The Definition of Rape in an International Perspective
3
1.1.
Background
3
1.2.
Purpose and Research Questions
9
1.3.
Delimitations
9
1.4.
Terminology
11
1.5.
Sources of International Law
16
1.6.
Method
28
1.7.
Structure of the Book
31
pt. II
Elements of the Crime of Rape: A Contextual Approach
35
2.
The Prohibition of Rape in Domestic Criminal Law: An Historical Overview
37
2.1.
Introduction
37
2.2.
Early Codes: Rape as a Violation of Property Rights
38
2.3.
The Middle Ages
40
2.4.
Corroboration of Complaints
41
2.5.
The Women's Movement and Law Reforms
47
3.
The Harm of Sexual Violence
53
3.1.
Introduction
53
3.2.
How to Define Harm
55
3.3.
Can Sexuality be Harmed?
57
3.4.
Human Dignity and Sexual Autonomy
64
3.5.
Cultural and Collective Harm
68
4.
Elements of the Crime of Rape
75
4.1.
The Principle of Legality
75
4.1.1.
The Principle in International Law
76
4.1.2.
The Extent of Interpretation
81
4.2.
Substantive Elements of the Definition of Rape
88
4.2.1.
Introduction
88
4.2.2.
The Elements of the Crime
90
4.2.3.
Non-Consent
93
4.2.3.1.
Performative and Subjective Consent
94
4.2.3.2.
Appropriate Antecedents and Consent
99
4.2.4.
Coercion
103
4.2.5.
Force or Threat of Force
106
4.2.6.
Implications of Non-Consent or Force Standards
107
4.2.7.
Actus Reus
110
4.2.8.
Mens Rea and Criminal Responsibility
115
5.
Sexual Violence in Context
123
5.1.
Introduction: Armed Conflict and Gender Hierarchies as Contextual Elements
123
5.2.
Victims of Armed Conflicts
125
5.3.
The Presence of Sexual Violence in Conflicts
128
5.4.
Theories on the Existence of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts
136
5.5.
Rape as a Strategic Tactic of War
139
5.5.1.
Rape as a Crime against the Community
139
5.5.2.
Distinguishing Rape from "Regular" Sexual Relations in Armed Conflicts
145
5.5.3.
The Contextual Approach to a Definition of Rape
146
5.5.4.
Armed Conflict as a Factor in Defining Rape
154
5.6.
Common Forms of Rape in Peacetime
156
5.7.
The Prohibition of Rape from Feminist Viewpoints
159
5.7.1.
The Impact of Gender in Denning Rape
159
5.7.2.
Feminist Critique of International Law
165
5.8.
Male Rape --- The Excluded Victim?
169
pt. III
An International Human Rights Law Perspective
177
6.
State Obligations to Prevent and Punish Rape
179
6.1.
Introduction
179
6.2.
The Role of the State in International Human Rights Law
180
6.3.
The Limits of State Obligations: Conduct Attributable to the State
182
6.3.1.
Primary and Secondary Rules
182
6.3.2.
Definition of an Internationally Wrongful Act
185
6.3.3.
Domestic Laws as Breaches of International Law
186
6.3.4.
Forms of Attribution
189
6.3.5.
Widening the Scope of Responsibility under International Law
192
6.3.6.
Consequences of the Public/Private Divide for Women's Human Rights
197
6.4.
The Due Diligence Standard --- An Obligation to Prevent and Punish Human Rights Violations
200
6.4.1.
The Scope of Due Diligence and the Nature of State Obligations
204
6.4.2.
Obligations in International Human Rights Treaties
207
6.4.3.
Which Rights Engender Due Diligence Obligations?
214
6.4.4.
The Due Diligence Standard as a Tool in Preventing Violence against Women
218
6.4.5.
Prevention through Domestic Criminalisation
222
6.4.6.
Jurisprudence Delineating the Obligation to Enact Criminal Laws
227
6.4.6.1.
Case Law on Domestic Violence of the European and Inter-American Human Rights Systems
227
6.4.6.2.
Case Law on Sexual Violence
231
6.4.6.3.
Conclusions on Obligations in Case Law to Prevent Sexual Violence
241
6.4.6.4.
Relevant Views and Statements from UN Treaty Bodies
244
6.4.7.
Failure of State Obligations to Prevent Single Cases of Rape
247
6.5.
Margin of Appreciation --- Flexibility in National Implementation?
254
6.6.
Conclusions on State Obligations
257
7.
The Recognition of Rape as a Violation of International Human Rights Law
259
7.1.
Is There a Human Right to Sexual Autonomy?
259
7.2.
The Prohibition of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment
263
7.2.1.
The Elements of Torture
263
7.2.2.
State Nexus
268
7.2.3.
Views and Cases on Rape as a Form of Torture
271
7.2.3.1.
The UN System
271
7.2.3.2.
Regional Human Rights Courts
276
7.2.4.
International Criminal Law --- A New Direction in Interpreting the Torture Definition?
281
7.2.4.1.
State Nexus
281
7.2.4.2.
Severity
285
7.2.4.3.
Purpose
287
7.3.
Rape as a Violation of the Right to Privacy
292
7.4.
Rape as a Violation of the Non-Discrimination Principle
296
7.4.1.
The Principle of Equality and Non-Discrimination
297
7.4.2.
Purpose or Effect of Discrimination
298
7.4.3.
State Obligations
304
7.4.4.
Sexual Violence as a Form of Gender Discrimination
305
7.4.5.
The Definition of Rape as an Expression of Gender Discrimination
311
7.4.5.1.
Gender Inequality and Access to Justice
311
7.4.5.2.
Gender-Bias in the Law
313
7.4.5.3.
Gender-Bias in Language
316
7.4.5.4.
Statistics as Evidence
318
7.5.
Universal Impact of the Regional Approach
319
7.6.
The lus Cogens Character of the Prohibition of Rape
325
7.6.1.
Which Rights are Peremptory Norms?
332
7.6.2.
A Gender-Sensitive Interpretation of lus Cogens
334
7.7.
Summary of State Obligations on the Prohibition and Definition of Rape
336
pt. IV
An International Humanitarian Law and International Criminal Law Perspective
339
8.
International Humanitarian Law
341
8.1.
Introduction: International Humanitarian Law and Enforcement through International Criminal Law
341
8.2.
Characteristics of International Humanitarian Law
342
8.3.
Early Codification of the Prohibition of Rape in International Humanitarian Law
344
8.4.
The International Military Tribunals at Nuremberg and of the Far East: The Birth of International Criminal Law
345
8.5.
The 1949 Geneva Conventions and the 1977 Additional Protocols
347
8.6.
The ICRC Study on Customary International Humanitarian Law
353
8.7.
Intergovernmental Organisations and the Prohibition of Sexual Violence in Armed Conflicts
356
9.
International Criminal Law
361
9.1.
Introduction
361
9.2.
Prosecution of Rape --- The Ad Hoc Tribunals
362
9.2.1.
ICTR: The First Definition of Rape in International Law
364
9.2.1.1.
The Akayesu Case --- A Conceptual Approach to Rape
366
9.2.1.2.
Beyond the Akayesu Judgment
370
9.2.1.3.
Conclusions
375
9.2.2.
ICTY: New Approaches in Defining Rape
376
9.2.2.1.
The Furundzija Judgment --- A Focus on Force or the Threat of Force
378
9.2.2.2.
The Kunarac Judgment --- Rape as a Violation of Sexual Autonomy
383
9.2.3.
Conclusions Based upon the Case Law of the ICTR and ICTY
389
9.2.4.
The Special Court for Sierra Leone
398
9.3.
The International Criminal Court
403
9.3.1.
The Birth of the ICC
403
9.3.2.
The Rome Statute and the Prohibition of Rape
406
9.3.3.
A Complementary Relationship
408
9.3.4.
The Rome Statute and the Scope of State Cooperation
410
9.3.4.1.
A Duty to Implement the Crimes?
410
9.3.4.2.
Modes of Implementation
412
9.3.4.3.
Complementarity --- Creating Demands on the Content of Domestic Laws?
414
9.3.4.4.
Unwillingness
416
9.3.4.5.
Inability
418
9.3.4.6.
Ordinary Crimes
419
9.3.5.
The Elements of the Definition of Rape
424
9.3.6.
The Elements of Crimes and Its Status for Member States
430
9.3.7.
Situations Investigated by the Court
434
9.3.8.
Impact of the ICC
437
9.4.
Universal Jurisdiction for the Crime of Rape?
440
9.4.1.
Which Crimes Incur Universal Jurisdiction?
444
9.4.2.
Domestic Application --- Various Solutions
450
9.4.3.
Conclusion on Universal Jurisdiction and the Prohibition of Rape
457
pt. V
The Prohibition of Rape --- Closing the Gap between International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law?
459
10.
The Interplay between International Human Rights Law and International Humanitarian Law
461
10.1.
The Concepts of Harmonisation and Humanisation in International Law
461
10.2.
The Nature of International Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law
463
10.3.
Fragmentation and Specialisation of Public International Law
466
10.3.1.
General Remarks
466
10.3.2.
Lex Specialis versus Lex Generalis
468
10.3.3.
Case Law of the ICJ
471
10.3.4.
A Complementary Approach
474
10.3.5.
Fundamental Standards of Humanity --- A Step towards Harmonisation
478
10.4.
The Concept of "Humanisation" of Humanitarian Law and Its Emergence
483
10.5.
The Application of International Humanitarian Law by Human Rights Courts and Treaty Bodies
489
10.6.
Is Harmonisation Desirable?
493
10.7.
Harmonising the Definitions of Rape and Torture
497
10.7.1.
The Definition of Torture
500
10.7.2.
The Definition of Rape
501
pt. VI
A Cultural Perspective
505
11.
Cultural Relativism and Obstacles to a Uniform International Definition of Rape
507
11.1.
Cultural Relativism and Women's Human Rights
507
11.1.1.
Relativity of Women's Rights
512
11.1.2.
Conflicts of Rights
515
11.2.
Cultural Relativism and International Criminal Law
517
11.3.
Culture and Mens Rea --- A Criminal Defence
520
11.4.
Relativism Inherent in the International Law System
524
pt. VII
Conclusions --- Emerging Obligations in Denning the Crime of Rape?
527
12.
Concluding Summary and Remarks
529
12.1.
Introduction
529
12.2.
Conclusion: The Prohibition and Definition of Rape in International Law
530
12.3.
The Harmonisation of Regimes and the Importance of Context
534
12.4.
General Remarks
536
12.5.
Critique of International Law Affecting the Prohibition of Rape
541
12.6.
The Legal Basis for Defining Rape
544
12.7.
Suggestions for the Future
545
References
547
Bibliography
577
Index
605