Foreword

xix

Preface

xxi

Acknowledgements

xxv

ch. One

Mexico and Its Territory: Constitutional Principles and Foundations

1

1.

Introduction

1

2.

Mexico's Constitutional Provisions

3

A.

Article 27 of the Political Constitution of 1917

4

B.

Article 42 of the Political Constitution

5

C.

Article 48 of the Political Constitution

6

3.

Mexico's National Territory

6

A.

Opinions of Mexican Doctrinarians

6

B.

The Notion of Territory in Mexico's Domestic Legislation

10

1.

The General Act of National Assets

10

2.

Mexico's Territory and the Supreme Court of Mexico

13

C.

Article 27, Paragraph One

14

1.

Historical Background

14

2.

Legal Interpretation

19

D.

Article 27, Paragraphs Four through Seven

24

E.

Article 42 and the Component Parts of the Territory

30

F.

Article 48 and Mexico's Islands

35

G.

Marine Affairs under Mexico's Federal Public Administration

37

4.

Conclusions

38

5.

Appendix One

40

doc. 1.1

Articles 27, 42 and 48 of Mexico's Political Constitution of 1917

40

ch. Two

Mexican Marine Zones: Their Legal Regime under the Federal Oceans Act of 1986

43

1.

Legal Historical Background

43

2.

Mexico's Federal Oceans Act of 1986

49

A.

Rationale of the Federal Executive Power

51

1.

The Conversion of International Law into Domestic Law

53

2.

Ratification by Mexico of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

55

3.

The FOA and the Opinion of the Foreign Affairs Secretary

59

B.

General Overview of the Federal Oceans Act

61

1.

To Codify, Update and Systematize

61

2.

To Comply with the 1982 LOS Convention

63

C.

The FOA's Innovative Features

64

D.

FOA's Ambit of Application

68

1.

General Provisions

68

2.

Maritime Installations

70

3.

Resources and Economic Utilization of the Sea

71

4.

Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment and Marine Scientific Research Principles

71

3.

Mexico's Marine Zones

72

A.

Internal Waters

72

1.

Application of the Straight Baseline System to the Gulf of California

74

a.

Diplomatic Protest by the United States in 1969

79

B.

The Territorial Sea

86

C.

The Contiguous Zone

92

D.

The Exclusive Economic Zone

93

E.

The Continental Shelf

95

4.

Conclusions

101

5.

Appendix Two

103

doc. 2.1

Federal Oceans Act (Diario Oficial de la Federacion of January 8, 1986)

103

doc. 2.2

Delineation of the Provisional Maritime Boundary between the Exclusive Fishery Zones of the United States and Mexico in the Pacific Ocean, International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC), December 30, 1967

121

doc. 2.3

International Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Mexico, International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC), December 12, 1970

122

doc. 2.4

International Maritime Boundary in the Pacific Ocean, International Boundary and Water Commission (IBWC), December 12, 1970

123

doc. 2.5

Mexico: Straight Baselines, 1968

124

doc. 2.6

Straight Baselines Delimiting Mexico's Territorial Sea in the Interior of the Gulf of California, Pursuant to Diario Oficial of August 29, 1986, and Fe de Erratas (Corrigendum) of Diario Oficial of October 5, 1968

125

ch. Three

Genesis and Development of the Exclusive Economic Zone in Latin America

127

1.

Introduction

127

2.

Genesis and Development in Latin America

132

A.

Latin American Diplomatic Conferences

132

1.

The Santiago Declaration of 1952

137

A.

Preamble and Maritime Policies

138

B.

Plurality of Legal Regimes Leads to Regional Conferences

141

2.

The Montevideo Declaration on the Law of the Sea of 1970

142

A.

Basic Principles of the Law of the Sea

143

3.

The Lima Declaration of Latin American States on the Law of the Sea of 1970

145

A.

Rationales

146

B.

Common Principles of the Law of the Sea

147

C.

Resolutions

148

4.

The Declaration of Santo Domingo of 1972

150

A.

Legal Content and Analysis

150

a.

Territorial Sea

153

b.

Continental Shelf

156

c.

International Seabed

159

d.

High Seas

160

e.

Marine Pollution

161

f.

Regional Cooperation

161

g.

Patrimonial Sea

161

h.

Origin of the Name "Patrimonial Sea"

163

B.

The Inter-American Juridical Committee

166

1.

The Report of Vargas Carreno in 1971

166

2.

The Committee's Resolution of 1973

168

3.

The Transformation of the Patrimonial Sea into the Exclusive Economic Zone

169

A.

The Colombo Meeting of January 18-27, 1971

170

B.

The Yaounde Seminar of June 20-30, 1972

171

C.

Kenya Draft on the Exclusive Economic Zone of August 7, 1972

172

D.

Declaration of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) on the Issues of the Law of the Sea, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, May 17-24, 1973

173

4.

Conclusions

174

5.

Appendix Three

176

doc. 3.1

Declaration of the Maritime Zone, Adopted August 18, 1952

176

doc. 3.2

Montevideo Declaration on the Law of the Sea, Adopted May 8, 1970

178

doc. 3.3

Declaration of the Latin American States on the Law of the Sea, Adopted August 8, 1970

180

doc. 3.4

Declaration of Santo Domingo, Adopted June 9, 1972

182

doc. 3.5

Colombia, Mexico and Venezuela: Draft Articles of Treaty Territorial Sea, April 2, 1973

185

doc. 3.6

Principles of Mexico on the Juridical Regime of the Sea, Mexico City, February 3, 1956

188

doc. 3.7

Evolution of Law of the Sea Concepts Leading Up to the 1982 UN Convention

190

ch. Four

Mexico's Exclusive Economic Zone. Its Establishment, Negotiation and Delimitation with Neighboring States

193

1.

Introduction

193

2.

The Exclusive Economic Zone in Mexico's Domestic Legal Arena

196

A.

The EEZ and Mexico's Federal Constitution

196

1.

Addition of an Eighth Paragraph to Article 27 of the Constitution

198

2.

The Reglamentary Act on the Exclusive Economic Zone of February 13, 1976

201

3.

Decree Establishing the Outer Boundaries of the EZZ of June 7, 1976

203

4.

Mexico's Exclusive Economic Zone and International Law

205

B.

Delimitation of the Exclusive Economic Zone

212

1.

Maritime Delimitation and International Law

212

2.

Mexico Closely Adhered to the Informal Single Negotiating Text (ISNT) in Establishing Its 200-Nautical Mile Exclusive Economic Zone

217

3.

The Use of Islands to Delimit Mexico's Exclusive Economic Zone

223

a.

Mexican Islands in the Gulf of Mexico

224

b.

Mexican Islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea

226

c.

Maritime Delimitation Negotiations with the United States

227

4.

The Exclusive Economic Zone and Its Impact on the Gulf of California

233

a.

The "Mexicanization" of the Gulf of California

233

3.

Maritime Delimitation with Other Countries

236

A.

Maritime Boundary Delimitation Treaties and Agreements with Neighboring States

236

1.

Cuba and the Exchange of Notes of 1976

236

2.

Maritime Delimitation Treaty with Honduras of 2005

237

3.

Pending Maritime Delimitation with Guatemala

238

a.

Agreement for the Surveillance of the Border Maritime Zones in the Pacific Ocean of August 17, 1989

238

4.

No Maritime Delimitation Agreement with Belize

240

a.

Modus Vivendi on Right of Innocent Passage by Warships of Mexico and Belize of 1990

240

b.

Binational Commission of Boundaries and Border Cooperation of 1991

241

4.

Conclusions

241

5.

Appendix Four

244

doc. 4.1

Reglamentary Act of the Eighth Paragraph of Article 27 of the Political Constitution Regarding the Exclusive Economic Zone

244

doc. 4.2

Decree Establishing the Outer Boundary of Mexico's Exclusive Economic Zone, Published in the Diario Oficial of June 7, 1976

246

doc. 4.3

Mexico's Outer Boundary of its Exclusive Economic Zone

253

doc. 4.4

Limits in the Seas No. 104, Maritime Boundary: Mexico - Cuba, September 10, 1985

254

doc. 4.5

Limits in the Seas No.45, Maritime Boundary: Mexico - United States, April 11, 1972

260

doc. 4.6

Treaty on Maritime Boundaries between the United States of America and the United Mexican States Done at Mexico City, May 4, 1976

263

doc. 4.7

Maritime Delimitation Treaty between the Government of the United Mexican States and the Republic of Honduras done at Tegucigalpa, Honduras, on April 18, 2005

266

doc. 4.8

Agreement between Mexico and Guatemala for the Surveillance of the Border Maritime Zones in the Pacific Ocean, both in the Territorial Sea and in the Exclusive Economic Zone, effected by an Exchange of Notes signed at Tapachula, Chiapas (Mexico), August 17, 1989

269

doc. 4.9

Limits in the Seas No.4, Straight Baselines: Mexico, August 30, 1968

271

doc. 4.10

Corrigendum to the "Decree That Delimits the Mexican Territorial Sea in the Interior of the Gulf of California" (that was published in the Diario Oficial of August 30, 1968), published in the Diario Oficial of October 5, 1968

276

doc. 4.11

Memorandum of Understanding (Modus Vivendi) between Mexico and Belize on the Matter of Innocent Passage of Ships of the Mexican Navy through the Territorial Sea, Effected through an Exchange of Notes in Mexico City, April 26, 1990

277

doc. 4.12

Evolution Table of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

278

ch. Five

Marine Scientific Research in Mexico: Its Legal Regime under Mexican Law and International Law

281

1.

Introduction

281

A.

Historical Significance of Marine Scientific Research

284

B.

Marine Scientific Research and the 1958 Legal Regime

288

C.

The Emergence of the 1958 Legal Regime to Control MSR

289

1.

Convention on the High Seas

289

2.

Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone

290

3.

Convention on the Continental Shelf

292

4.

Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas

297

2.

Marine Scientific Research and Freedom of the Seas Doctrine

299

3.

An Historical Overview: Explorations for Wealth, for Souls and for Knowledge

301

A.

Explorations for Wealth

301

1.

The Era of "Imaginary Geography"

302

B.

Explorations for Souls

303

1.

Religious Indoctrination: The Franciscans, the Dominics and the Agustineans

303

C.

Explorations for Knowledge

304

1.

Nautical Charts and Maps

304

2.

Spanish Expeditions in the Pacific Ocean and the New Spain

305

D.

Early British and U.S. Scientific Explorations Offshore Mexico

307

1.

Early British Explorations

308

2.

United States Explorations in the 1870's and 1880's and in the Early 1920's

308

4.

Mexico's Administrative Regulatory System Regarding Marine Scientific Research Clearances for Foreign Vessels

310

A.

Historical Narrative of the Conduct of Marine Scientific Research by Foreign Vessels Offshore Mexico

310

B.

Multiple Federal Agencies and Statutes Involved in the Conduct of Marine Scientific Research by Foreign Countries

316

Agencies

1.

Interior Department

318

2.

Foreign Affairs

319

3.

Mexico's Navy

320

a.

Semar and CONACIO

321

4.

Environment

323

5.

Public Education

324

6.

Communications and Transport

324

Legislative Enactments

325

5.

Legal Regime Pursuant to the 1986 Federal Oceans Act

326

A.

Marine Scientific Research in the Federal Oceans Act of 1986

332

B.

Foreign Marine Scientific Research in Each of Mexico's Marine Zones

335

1.

MSR in the Internal Waters

335

2.

MSR in the Territorial Sea

337

3.

MSR in the Exclusive Economic Zone and the Continental Shelf

338

a.

A Dual Regime for Foreign MSR

341

i.

Sovereign Consent Regime

341

ii.

Conventional Consent Regime

341

4.

MSR Principles and Mexican Participation

342

C.

Conduct of MSR under the 1982 U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea and International Law

342

D.

MSR Relations between Mexico and the United States

344

E.

The United States of America and MSR

346

F.

The United States Identifies Some Data Collection Activities That Are Not Marine Scientific Research

351

1.

Prospecting and Exploration of Natural Resources

355

2.

Hydrographic Surveys (for Enhancing the Safety of Navigation)

356

3.

Military Activities Including Military Surveys

357

4.

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment of Marine Pollution Pursuant to Section 4 of Part XII of the Convention

358

5.

The Collection of Marine Meteorological Data and Other Routine Ocean Observations

359

6.

Activities Related to Submerged Wrecks or Objects of an Archeological or Historical Nature

360

G.

Clearances Granted to United States Vessels for MSR Projects in Mexico

365

6.

Conclusions

369

7.

Appendix Five

372

doc. 5.1

Conduction Scientific Research in Mexico

372

doc. 5.2

Department of State Notice to Research Vessel Operators No. 98

373

doc. 5.3

Chart (a): Approval Process of Foreign MSR Projects, 1980-1990

378

Chart (b)

Geographical Area of Foreign MSR Projects, 1980-1998

379

Chart (c)

Focus Area of U.S. MSR Investigations, January 1984 to September 1998

380

Chart (d)

Total Foreign MSR Projects, 1980-1998

381

doc. 5.4

Scientific Areas in MSR Projects, 1976-1993

382

doc. 5.5

Consolidation of U.S. MSR Areas Offshore Mexico, 1994-2009

383

doc. 5.6

U.S. Vessels That Conducted Research Offshore Mexico, 2000-2009

384

ch. Six

Mexico's Islands: Mirage or Reality?

405

1.

Introduction: Discovery of Mexico and Its Islands by Spain in the 16th Century

405

2.

The Bull Inter Caetera and the Principle of Uti Possidetis and Mexico

412

A.

The Bull Inter Caetera of 1493

413

B.

The Principle of Uti Possidetis

417

1.

Article 1 of the Constitutional Act of the Mexican Federation of 1824

418

2.

Article 2 of the Federal Constitution of 1824

418

3.

Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Mexico and Spain of 1836

419

C.

Articles 42 and 48 of Mexico's Federal Constitution of 1917 with Regard to Mexico's Territory and Its Islands

420

1.

Article 42

420

3.

Legal Problems Derived from Article 48 of the Constitution

425

A.

During the Constitutional Assembly of 1916-1917

425

1.

Ambiguity in the Language of Article 48

425

2.

First Amendment to Article 48 of the Political Constitution in 1960

429

B.

As Reflected in the Language of the State Constitutions

433

1.

Baja California

434

2.

Baja California Sur

434

3.

Campeche

435

4.

Sonora

435

5.

Quintana Roo

435

6.

Nayarit

435

C.

A Novel Approach to Mexico's Adjacent Islands of Certain States

436

D.

A Failed Attempt to "Federalize" Mexico's Insular Territory

440

4.

Definition and Categorization of Mexican Islands according to Their Legal Situation

442

A.

Islands and the 1982 U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea

442

1.

Article 121: Regime of Islands

442

2.

Cays, Reefs and Rocks in the Gulf of Mexico

444

B.

Islands under Mexican Law

447

1.

Islands and the Federal Oceans Act of 1986

447

2.

Isla Clarion and Mexico's Exclusive Economic Zone

448

3.

Islands under Other Federal Legislation

451

a.

The Federal Public Administration Act

451

b.

The General Act of National Assets

452

c.

The Federal Civil Code

452

4.

Islands under State Legislation

455

C.

Categorization of Mexican Islands

456

1.

Islands under the Direct Control of the Federal Government

456

2.

Islands Destined to a Specific Federal End

456

a.

Isla Santa Margarita and Isla Roqueta

456

b.

Islas Marias

457

3.

Islands under the Jurisdiction of the States

459

4.

Islands under an Environmental Program

459

5.

Private Islands

460

5.

Catalogues and Inventories of the Mexican Islands

464

A.

Islas Mexicanas by Manuel Munoz Lumbier in 1946

465

B.

Legal Regime of the Mexican Islands and Their Catalogue (1977, 1979 and 1981) by the Mexican Navy

465

C.

Legal Regime and Inventory of Islands, Cays and Reefs of the National Territory (1981) by Gobernacion

466

D.

Other Catalogues by Pesca (1979) and Programacion (1981)

467

E.

The Newest Catalogue of the Insular Territory (2009-2011)

467

6.

Review of Three Controversies Involving Mexican Islands

469

A.

Clipperton Island and the Dispute between Mexico and France

470

1.

Formal Reservation by France

471

2.

The Mexican Reply

472

3.

Arbitral Award by Vittorio Emmanuel III at Rome, Italy, on January 28, 1931

472

4.

Mexico's Position Today

474

B.

The California Channel Islands

475

1.

An Incorrect Interpretation of Article V of the Guadalupe Hidalgo Treaty of 1848

475

2.

Arguments by Esteban Chazari in 1894

476

3.

Mexico's Position Today

479

C.

The Coronados Islands Offshore Tijuana

480

D.

Closing Remarks on the Islands of Mexico

482

7.

Conclusions

484

8.

Appendix Six

485

doc. 6.1

Arbitral Award Regarding Clipperton Island

485

doc. 6.2

Informal Catalogue of Mexican Islands

490

doc. 6.3

Information Regarding Mexico's Marine Protected Areas

508

doc. 6.4

Recommendations for the Future

513

Bibliographies

523

Mexican Law of the Sea

523

Latin American Law of the Sea

529

General Index

537

Onomastic Index

543