Introduction to the law and legal system of the United States / by William Burnham.
2011
KF386 .B88 2011 (Map It)
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Author
Title
Introduction to the law and legal system of the United States / by William Burnham.
Published
St. Paul, MN : Thomson/West, [2011]
Copyright
©2011
Call Number
KF386 .B88 2011
Edition
Fifth edition.
Spine Title
Legal system of the U.S.
ISBN
9780314266101 (pbk.)
0314266100 (pbk.)
0314266100 (pbk.)
Description
xxxii, 735 pages, 95 unnumbered pages ; 26 cm
System Control No.
(OCoLC)741751525
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Record Appears in
Table of Contents
ch. I
History And Governmental Structure
1
A.
Some Constitutional History
1
1.
Independence From Colonial Rule and Efforts to Achieve Union
1
2.
The Articles of Confederation
2
3.
The Constitutional Convention
3
4.
Ratification of the Bill of Rights
3
B.
The Governmental Structure Provided for in the 1789 Constitution
4
1.
Legislative Power
4
2.
Executive Power
6
3.
Judicial Power
8
C.
Separation and Balance of Powers Among the Branches of the Federal Government
9
1.
Establishment and Vigorous Exercise of the Power of Judicial Review
9
2.
Growth of Presidential Power
12
3.
The Advent and Growth of Administrative Agencies
15
4.
Congress's Investigatory Oversight Role
16
D.
The States and Federalism
18
1.
State Government Structure and Powers
18
2.
Changes in Vertical Federalism: The Growth of Federal Power
21
a.
Early Development of an Expansive View of Federal Power
21
b.
State Resistance to Expanding Federal Power, the Civil War and the Civil War Amendments to the Constitution
22
c.
Federal Power Since the Mid-20th Century
24
d.
Conditional Spending
27
3.
Changes in Horizontal Federalism: The Blurring of State Boundaries
28
E.
The Impact of Governmental Structure on the Legal System: An Overview
30
1.
The Effects of Vertical Federalism: Concurrent Power to Make Laws and Adjudicate Disputes on the Same Territory
30
a.
Concurrent Federal and State Lawmaking Power
30
b.
Concurrent Federal and State Adjudicatory Power
33
2.
The Effects of Horizontal Federalism: Concurrent Adjudicatory and Lawmaking Powers Among the States
33
3.
The Effects of Separation of Powers and Federalism on the Federal Courts
34
ch. II
Legal Methodology
38
A.
Sources of Law and Their Hierarchy
38
1.
Enacted Law
38
2.
Caselaw
39
a.
Common Law Caselaw
40
b.
Caselaw Interpreting Enacted Law
41
3.
The Hierarchy of Sources of Law
41
B.
Common Law
42
1.
A Very Brief History
42
2.
The Nature of the Judicial Process in Common Law Adjudication
44
3.
The Problem of Retroactivity
48
C.
Statutory Law in a Common Law System
49
1.
Growth of Statutory Law
49
2.
The Common Law Attitude Toward Statutes
50
3.
Reasons for the Common Law Approach to Statutes
51
4.
Attempts at Codification in the United States
53
D.
Statutory Interpretation Methods
54
1.
The Plain Meaning Rule
54
2.
Plain Meaning and Legislative History
56
3.
The Social Purpose Rule
58
4.
The Context of Statutory Language
58
5.
Presumptions About the Use of Language
59
6.
External Influences on Statutory Interpretation
60
7.
Less Traditional Approaches to Statutory Interpretation
61
a.
Legislatively-Inspired Common Law
61
b.
Reasoning by Analogy Without the Common Law Medium
63
E.
The Form and General Nature of Caselaw
64
1.
Judicial Opinions and Their Structure
64
2.
Precedential Effect of Court Decisions
65
F.
The Legal Reasoning Process in Caselaw
66
1.
Deductive Reasoning from Caselaw Rules
66
a.
Determining the Holding or Rule of a Case
66
b.
Dictum
67
c.
Multiple and Implied Holdings
68
d.
Synthesizing a Rule From Several Cases
68
2.
Analogical Reasoning Directly From Prior Caselaw Decisions
69
a.
The Analogical Reasoning Process
69
b.
Evaluating Factual Variations in Common Law Caselaw
70
c.
Choice of Deductive or Analogical Reasoning: Easy Cases and Hard Cases
72
3.
Reasoning in Caselaw Interpreting Statutes
72
a.
Deductive and Analogical Reasoning in Statutory Caselaw
72
b.
Evaluating Factual Variations in Caselaw Interpreting Statutes
73
G.
Legal Research Techniques and the Form of Legal Argument
74
1.
Library Resources for Finding Primary Materials
74
2.
Secondary Authorities
75
3.
How Legal Research is Approached
77
4.
Computerized Legal Research
78
5.
The Form of Legal Argument
78
ch. III
The Adversary System And Jury Trials
80
A.
The Characteristics and Rationale of the Adversary System
80
1.
The Need for a Passive Decision-Maker
81
2.
Party Presentation of Evidence and Arguments
82
3.
Structuring the Trial to Induce and Sustain a Clash of Opposing Partisan Views of the Case
83
4.
Structuring the Trial to Assure Equality of Adversarial Opportunities
84
B.
Juries
85
1.
Some History and Comparative Comments
86
2.
The Division of Labor Between Judge and Jury
87
3.
Characteristics of the Modern Jury
89
C.
The Adversary Jury Trial and the Lawyer's Role in it
92
1.
Jury Selection
92
2.
Opening Statements
95
3.
Presentation of Evidence (Proofs)
95
a.
Witness Testimony
96
(1).
Direct Examination
97
(2).
Cross Examination
98
(3).
Redirect Examination
100
b.
Objections
100
c.
Exhibits: Real, Demonstrative and Documentary Evidence
101
4.
Motions for a Directed Verdict
102
5.
Closing Arguments
102
6.
Jury Instructions
105
7.
Deliberation and Verdict
106
8.
Post-Trial Motions
108
D.
Evidence Law
109
1.
The Requirement of Personal Knowledge for Testimony
109
2.
Opinion Evidence
110
3.
Relevance and Character Evidence
111
4.
The Rule Against Hearsay and Its Major Exceptions
112
a.
Statements Not Offered for Their Truth
112
b.
Exceptions to the Rule Against Hearsay
113
(1).
Party Admissions
113
(2).
Business Records
114
(3).
Excited Utterances
114
(4).
Present Sense Impression
114
(5).
State of Mind
115
(6).
Other Exceptions
115
E.
Criticisms of the Adversary System
115
1.
Abuse of Party-Control
115
2.
Inadequate Focus on the Truth
117
3.
The Inefficiency of Adversary Litigation
118
4.
The Costs of Litigation and Inequality of Financial Resources
120
5.
Criticisms of the Jury System
121
ch. IV
The Legal Profession
127
A.
Legal Education and Admission to the Bar
128
1.
Legal Educational Requirements and the J.D. Degree
128
2.
Admission to Law School
129
3.
The Basic J.D. Curriculum and Degree
130
4.
Advanced Law Degrees
134
5.
Law Teachers
134
6.
Admission to the Bar
136
7.
Criticisms of Legal Education in Law School
138
8.
Legal Education After Law School
140
B.
Issues in the Regulation of Practice
141
C.
Types of Practice
144
1.
Private Practice
144
a.
Solo Practice and Smaller Firms
144
b.
Large-Firm Practice
147
c.
Non-Traditional Forms for Delivery of Private Legal Services
149
2.
In-House Counsel
150
3.
Government Service
151
a.
Federal Government Service
151
b.
State Attorneys General
153
c.
Local Prosecutors
154
d.
City and County Attorneys
154
4.
Public Interest Practice
154
a.
Legal Services Assistance in Civil Matters
155
b.
Representation of Indigent Defendants in Criminal Cases
156
c.
Private Public Interest Organizations
157
D.
Minorities and Women in the Legal Profession
158
E.
Legal Ethics
160
1.
Regulating the Legal Profession: Sources of Regulation
160
2.
Defining Ethical Behavior: The Duties of the Attorney
161
a.
The Nature of the Attorney-Client Relationship
161
b.
The Attorney's Duty to the Administration of Justice
163
c.
Duties to the Profession and Others
164
ch. V
The Judicial System
167
pt. I
An Overview of Court Systems and Judges
167
A.
Trial Courts and Appellate Courts: Their Basic Characteristics and Interrelationship
167
1.
Trial Courts
167
2.
Appellate Courts
169
3.
The Scope of Appellate Review
170
4.
Appellate Court Procedure
171
5.
Trial Court Actions that are Reviewable
172
B.
State and Federal Court Structure and Characteristics
173
1.
State Court Structure
173
2.
The Federal Court System
174
3.
The United States Supreme Court
176
C.
Judges and Methods of Judicial Selection
177
1.
Characteristics of Judges
177
2.
Judicial Selection Methods in the Federal System
180
3.
State Judicial Selection Systems
182
4.
Removal and Discipline of Judges
184
D.
Other Judicial Officials and Assistants
186
1.
Magistrates
186
2.
Bankruptcy Judges
186
3.
Administrative Adjudicators
187
4.
Court Clerks, Law Clerks and Other Court Officials
187
E.
Subject-Matter Jurisdiction of State and Federal Courts
188
1.
State Court Subject Matter Jurisdiction
188
2.
Federal District Court Subject Matter Jurisdiction
188
pt. II
Federalism Complications in the Judicial System
191
A.
Law Applied in Federal and State Courts
191
1.
Law Applied When State-Law Claims Are Adjudicated in Federal Court
191
2.
Law Applied When Federal Law Claims are Adjudicated in State Court
193
3.
Appeals of Federal Law Issues in State Court and State Law Issues in Federal Court
194
B.
Simultaneous Litigation in State and Federal Court
195
1.
Resolution by First Entry of Judgment
195
2.
Injunctions Against Litigation in Another Court
195
3.
Abstention
196
ch. VI
Administrative Law
198
pt. I
Law and Procedures of Administrative Agencies
198
A.
Types and Purposes of Administrative Agencies
198
B.
Rule-Making Functions of Agencies
199
1.
Legislative Rules and the Rule-Making Process
199
2.
Interpretive Rules and Statements of Policy
201
C.
Adjudicatory Functions of Agencies
201
1.
Administrative Adjudication Procedure under the APA
202
2.
Minimum Due Process Requirements for Agency Action
205
D.
Judicial Review of Agency Action
209
1.
Right to Judicial Review of Agency Action
209
2.
Procedural Aspects of Judicial Review
210
3.
Scope of Review of Agency Action
212
4.
Review of Discretionary Agency Actions or Inaction
213
5.
Attorney Fees and Costs
214
E.
Presidential and Congressional Controls on Federal Agency Action
214
1.
Power Over Tenure of Agency Officials
214
2.
Ongoing Presidential and Congressional Influence on Agency Action
217
pt. II
Separation of Powers and Federalism Issues Involving Agencies
219
A.
Administrative Agencies and Separation of Powers
219
1.
Agencies Exercising Legislative Power
219
2.
Agencies Exercising Judicial Power
220
3.
Intra-Agency Separation of Powers Problems
222
B.
Federalism and Sovereign Immunity Limits on Suits to Redress Illegal Federal and State Agency Action
223
1.
Suits Against Agencies
223
a.
Suits Against Federal Agencies in Federal Court
224
b.
Suits Against Federal Agencies in State Court
224
c.
Suits Against State Agencies in Federal Court
225
d.
Suits Against State Agencies in State Court
226
2.
Suits Against Administrative Officials for Personal Liability
227
ch. VII
Civil Procedure
229
pt. I
The Course of a Civil Lawsuit
229
A.
The Pleading Stage of the Case
229
1.
Plaintiff's Complaint
229
2.
The Defendant's Response to the Complaint
231
3.
Joinder of Claims and Parties
233
B.
The Discovery Stage
235
1.
Discovery Methods
236
2.
Scope of Discovery
238
3.
Enforcement of Discovery
239
C.
Motion for Summary Judgment and the Final Pretrial Conference
240
1.
Summary Judgment
240
2.
Pretrial Conferences
241
D.
Trial Procedure
242
1.
Impact of Civil Pretrial Procedures on Trials
242
2.
Scope of the Right to a Jury Trial in Civil Cases
243
E.
Judgments in Civil Cases: Money Damages, Equitable Relief and Costs
244
1.
Money Judgments
244
2.
Equitable Relief
245
3.
Declaratory Relief
247
4.
Awards of Costs
247
F.
Effect of Judgments
248
1.
Claim Preclusion (Res Judicata)
248
2.
Issue Preclusion (Collateral Estoppel)
249
G.
Resolving Cases Without Litigation
250
1.
Voluntary Settlements
251
2.
Court Sponsored Settlement Procedures
252
pt. II
The Complicating Effects of Federalism on Civil Procedure
253
A.
Personal Jurisdiction in State and Federal Courts
253
1.
Personal Jurisdiction in State Courts
253
2.
Personal Jurisdiction Powers of Federal Courts
258
B.
Forum Non Conveniens
259
C.
Recognition of Judgments: The "Full Faith and Credit" Requirement
261
1.
Enforcement and Effect of Out-of-State Judgments
261
2.
Exceptions to Full Faith and Credit
262
D.
Choice-of-Law Rules
263
1.
Constitutional Limitations on State Choice-of-Law Rules
263
2.
The Variety of State Choice-of-Law Rules
264
3.
Trends in Conflicts Law in the Courts
268
ch. VIII
Criminal Procedure
269
pt. I
An Outline of the Criminal Justice Process
269
A.
Arrest, Formal Charges and the First Appearance
269
B.
Preliminary Hearings, Indictments or Informations, and Pre-Trial Motions
273
C.
Trial
276
D.
Sentencing Procedures in Criminal Cases
277
E.
Appellate Review of Convictions
279
F.
Resolving Criminal Cases Without Trial
280
1.
Plea Bargaining
281
2.
Programs for Diversion from the Criminal Justice System
282
pt. II
Constitutional Criminal Procedure
283
A.
Introduction and Preliminary Comments
283
B.
Limitations on Investigative Techniques and Apprehension of Suspects
284
1.
Search and Seizure
284
a.
What is a "Search"?
285
b.
Whether a Search is "Reasonable"
288
(1).
Searches With Probable Cause and a Warrant
288
(2).
Searches With Probable Cause But Without a Warrant
289
(3).
Searches Without Probable Cause or a Warrant
291
(4).
Means of Executing Searches: The "Knock and Announce" Rule
293
c.
Unreasonable "Seizures" of Persons: Illegal Arrests
293
d.
The "Terry" Stop and Frisk
295
e.
Administrative Searches and Seizures
297
2.
The Law of Confessions
298
3.
Pre-Trial Right to Counsel
302
4.
The Exclusionary Rule
303
C.
Rights at the Charging Stage and Pre-Trial Release
306
D.
Rights at Trial
307
1.
Right to Speedy Trial
307
2.
Right to Public Trial
308
3.
Right to a Jury Trial
309
4.
Right to an Impartial Jury
310
5.
Right Not to Testify
310
6.
Right to Confront Accusers
311
7.
Right to Counsel at Trial
312
8.
Burden of Proof
313
9.
Other Constitutional Protections
315
E.
The Effect of Prior Proceedings: The Double Jeopardy Guarantee
315
1.
When Jeopardy Attaches
315
2.
Retrial After a Completed Trial or Other Ruling on the Merits
316
3.
Retrial After a Mistrial
317
4.
What is the "Same Offence"
317
5.
Collateral Estoppel
318
6.
Double Jeopardy and Dual Sovereignty
318
F.
Limitations on Punishment
319
1.
The Death Penalty
319
2.
Other Forms of Cruel and Unusual Punishment
321
3.
Civil Forfeitures
321
G.
Rights on Appeal
322
ch. IX
Constitutional Law
324
pt. I
Judicial Review, Structure and Powers
324
A.
Judicial Review
324
1.
The General Nature of Judicial Review
324
2.
Constitutional Interpretation
326
B.
Limits on Judicial Review by Federal Courts
329
1.
Standing
329
2.
Ripeness and Mootness
332
3.
The "Political Question" Doctrine
333
4.
Congressional Limits on Judicial Review
335
C.
Legislative Powers of the Federal Government and the Relationship Between the States and the Federal Government: Vertical Federalism
337
1.
Regulating the States Themselves
337
2.
Federal Regulation of Private Conduct Within States
339
3.
Congressional Power Under [§]5 of the 14th Amendment
343
D.
The Relationship Between the States: Horizontal Federalism
344
1.
The "Dormant" Commerce Clause
345
2.
The Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV
348
pt. II
Individual Rights Protected by the Constitution
349
A.
State Action
349
B.
Rights to Equal Protection of the Laws
351
1.
Strict Scrutiny for Suspect Classifications and Burdens on Fundamental Rights
352
a.
Suspect Classifications
352
b.
Classifications Affecting Fundamental Rights
356
2.
Lax "Rational Basis" Scrutiny for Economic and Business Regulation or Social Welfare Programs
356
3.
The Middle-Level Test for "Semi-Suspect" Classifications
358
C.
Substantive Due Process Rights
362
1.
The Right to Privacy
364
2.
Other Privacy Rights
366
D.
First Amendment Freedoms of Expression
368
1.
Content Regulation
370
2.
Time, Place and Manner Restrictions on Protected Expression
374
3.
Regulating Symbolic Expression
378
4.
Means of Regulating Expression
378
5.
Some Special Issues in Freedom of Expression
383
E.
First Amendment Religious Freedoms
389
1.
The Establishment Clause
389
2.
The Free Exercise Clause
394
ch. X
Contracts And Commercial Law
398
pt. I
The Common Law of Contracts
398
A.
Formation of Contracts
398
1.
Offer and Acceptance
398
2.
Consideration
401
3.
Formal Requirements
403
a.
The Statute of Frauds
403
b.
Resolving Problems with Incomplete or Indefinite Written Agreements
404
B.
Interpretation of Contracts
404
C.
Issues in Performance of Contracts
406
1.
Order of Performance
406
2.
Conditions and Duties
406
D.
Grounds for Nonperformance of Contracts
407
1.
Mistake
407
2.
Changed Circumstances: Impossibility, Impracticability, Frustration of Purpose, and Reformation
407
3.
Lack of Capacity: Minors and Mental Incapacity
408
4.
Duress and Undue Influence
409
5.
Misrepresentation
410
6.
Unconscionable and Adhesion Contracts
410
7.
Illegal Contracts and Contracts Against Public Policy
410
E.
Breaches and Repudiations of Contracts
411
F.
Remedies for Breaches of Contracts
411
1.
Damages and Their Limitations
411
2.
Equitable Relief
412
pt. II
Commercial Law
414
A.
The Uniform Commercial Code
414
1.
Contracts for Sales of Goods Under the UCC
415
a.
Special Rules for "Merchants"
415
b.
Contract Formation
416
c.
Determining Contract Content Under the UCC
417
d.
Warranties
419
2.
Security Interests in Personal Property Under the UCC
422
a.
The Nature of Security Interests
422
b.
Requirements for Valid Security Interests
423
c.
Enforcing Security Interests
423
d.
Disputes Over Secured Property
423
B.
Consumer Protection Laws
425
1.
Consumer Credit Transactions
425
a.
Federal Laws
426
b.
State Laws
430
2.
Deceptive and Unfair Trade Practices
430
a.
Federal Laws
430
b.
State Laws
433
ch. XI
Tort Law
434
A.
Torts in Perspective
434
B.
Types of Torts by Degrees of Fault
436
1.
Intentional Torts
436
a.
Most Common Types of Intentional Torts
436
b.
Defenses to Intentional Torts
439
2.
Negligence
440
a.
Negligence as the Breach of a Duty of Care
440
b.
Causation in Negligence Cases
442
c.
Defenses to Negligence
444
d.
Some Special Issues in Negligence Liability
446
(1).
Joint Torts
446
(2).
Vicarious Liability: Liability for the Negligence of Others
447
(3).
Dram Shop Liability
447
3.
Liability Without Fault
447
a.
Abnormally Dangerous Activities
448
b.
Products Liability
448
C.
Torts Vindicating Particular Interests
451
1.
Injuries to Economic Interests
452
a.
Fraud and Misrepresentation
452
b.
Interference with Economic Advantage
452
2.
Misuse of Legal Procedures
453
3.
Invasions of Dignitary Interests
454
a.
Defamation
454
b.
Infliction of Emotional Distress
455
c.
Invasion of Privacy
456
d.
Constitutional Limits on Dignitary Torts
457
(1).
The 1st Amendment and Defamation
457
(2).
The 1st Amendment and Other Dignitary Torts
459
D.
Relief Available in Tort Cases
460
1.
Compensatory Damages
460
2.
Punitive Damages
463
a.
Nature of Award and Grounds
463
b.
Constitutional Requirements
464
3.
Wrongful Death and Survival Actions
465
4.
Specific Relief
466
E.
Administration of the Tort System of Compensation
466
1.
The Role of Liability Insurance
466
2.
The "Crisis" in the Tort Compensation System and Recent Attempts at Reform
467
3.
Substitutes for Tort Recovery
469
ch. XII
Property Law
471
pt. I
Real and Personal Property
471
A.
The Nature and Forms of Property
471
B.
Defining Interests in Real Property
471
1.
Property Interests Defined by Degree of Ownership or Control
472
2.
Property Interests Defined by Physical Limits
473
3.
Property Interests Defined by Time
474
4.
Property Interests Defined by How the Interest Is Held
475
C.
Personal Property
476
D.
Rights and Obligations of Owners of Real Property
476
1.
Rights Included in Ownership of Real Property
476
2.
Consensual Limitations on Ownership
477
3.
Limitations Arising By Operation of Law
478
4.
Duties of Owners of Real Property
479
5.
Property Taxes on Ownership of Real Property
481
E.
Government Control Over Real Property
482
1.
Regulating Land Use
482
2.
Governmental Takings of Land: Eminent Domain
482
3.
Regulatory "Takings"
484
pt. II
Transfers of Property Interests
488
A.
Real Estate Purchase Transactions
488
1.
The Purchase Contract
488
2.
Financing
488
3.
Title Assurance
489
4.
Transfer Taxes on the Sale of Property
490
5.
RESPA Disclosures to the Purchaser-Borrower
490
6.
Income Tax on Gains Realized From Sale of Real Property
490
B.
Development and Sale of Condominiums and Cooperatives
491
1.
Condominiums
491
2.
Cooperatives
492
C.
Leasing Property: Landlord-Tenant Law
492
1.
Residential Leasing
492
2.
Commercial Leases
493
D.
Succession of Property Interests Upon Death of the Owner
493
1.
Testamentary Succession of Property
494
2.
Intestate Succession
494
E.
Establishment and Operation of Trusts
495
1.
Formation of a Trust and Reasons for Its Establishment
495
2.
Avoiding Probate with a Revocable Inter-Vivos Trust
496
3.
Avoiding Taxes with an Irrevocable Inter-Vivos Trust
496
4.
Testamentary Trusts and the Use of a Pour-Over Will with an Inter Vivos Trust
497
F.
Other Methods of Transferring Interests in Property
497
1.
Transfers Common to Both Real and Personal Property
497
2.
Transfers Applicable to Personal Property Only
497
pt. III
Intellectual Property
498
A.
Copyright Law
499
1.
Works Subject to Copyright Protection
499
2.
Copyright Owner's Rights
500
3.
Ownership and Transfers of Copyrights
501
4.
Fair Use of Copyrighted Work
503
5.
Infringement
505
B.
Patent Law
506
1.
Inventions Patentable
506
2.
Registration of Patents
509
3.
Rights Protected
510
4.
Infringement
510
C.
Trademark Law
511
1.
What is a Trademark
511
2.
Registration
513
3.
Infringement Suits
515
D.
International Intellectual Property Protection
515
1.
Treaties
515
2.
Trade Agreements
516
ch. XIII
Family Law
518
A.
Marriage
518
1.
Ceremonial Marriages
518
2.
Common Law Marriages
519
3.
Marriage and Property Rights
520
B.
Dissolution of Marriages
522
1.
Divorce
522
2.
Annulment and Legal Separation
524
3.
Alimony and Property Settlement
524
a.
Distinction Between Alimony and Property Settlements
524
b.
Determining the Amount of Alimony Awards and Property Settlements
525
c.
Agreements on Alimony and Property Settlement
526
d.
Property Subject to Division
526
4.
Custody of Children
527
a.
Presumptions and Factors in Awarding Custody
528
b.
Visitation Rights
530
c.
Joint Custody Arrangements
531
d.
Interstate Enforcement of Custody Decrees
532
5.
Child Support
532
a.
Nature and Duration of the Support Obligation
532
b.
Determining Parentage for Support Purposes
533
c.
The Amount of Support Orders
534
d.
Welfare Programs for Needy Families
535
e.
Enforcement of Child Support Orders
536
C.
Non-Traditional Relationships and Family Law
537
1.
Unmarried Heterosexual Couples
537
2.
Homosexual Couples
537
D.
Child Custody Issues Outside Divorce
540
1.
Adoption
540
2.
Reproductive Technology and Child Custody
542
E.
Problems in the Intact Family
543
1.
Spouse Abuse
543
2.
Child Abuse and Neglect
544
3.
Medical Care
546
4.
Juvenile Delinquency
546
5.
Mentally or Physically Disabled People
547
a.
Guardianships of the Estate and the Person
547
b.
Civil Commitment of Mentally III Persons
547
c.
Issues Involving the Mentally Retarded
547
ch. XIV
Criminal Law
549
A.
General Considerations
549
1.
Sources and Variety of Criminal Law
549
2.
Constitutional Considerations
550
B.
Elements of a Crime
551
1.
The Wrongful Act
551
2.
Fault or Guilty Mind (Mens Rea)
552
a.
The Levels of Fault
552
b.
General and Specific Intent
553
c.
Liability Without Fault
553
3.
Causation
555
C.
Specific Offenses
556
1.
Criminal Homicide
556
2.
Burglary
558
3.
Theft Offenses
559
4.
Rape (Criminal Sexual Conduct)
560
D.
Defenses to Criminal Liability
561
1.
Failure-of-Proof Defenses
561
2.
Affirmative Defenses
562
a.
Defensive Violence
563
b.
Insanity and Other Mental Illness
564
c.
Duress, Necessity and Other Pressures on Free Will
566
d.
Entrapment
568
E.
Peripheral Actors, Anticipatory Crimes and Enterprise Criminality
569
1.
Accessories and Accomplices
569
2.
Solicitation, Attempts and Conspiracies
570
3.
Enterprise Liability
571
a.
Criminal Liability of Corporations
571
b.
Criminal Liability for Racketeering Activities: RICO
571
F.
Criminal Sanctions
574
1.
Imprisonment
574
2.
Probation
577
3.
The Death Penalty
577
ch. XV
Business Law
580
A.
Types of Business Organizations
580
1.
Sole Proprietorships
580
2.
General Partnerships
581
3.
Limited Partnerships
583
4.
Corporations
585
a.
General Nature
585
b.
Types of Corporations
586
c.
Formation of the Corporation
587
d.
Business Reasons for Choosing to Incorporate
588
e.
Corporate Finance and Ownership
590
f.
Organizational Structure and Powers
591
g.
"Piercing the Corporate Veil"
595
h.
Extraordinary Corporate Transactions
597
i.
Tender Offers
598
5.
Limited Liability Companies
599
B.
Regulation of Corporate Securities
600
1.
Federal Securities Regulation
600
2.
State "Blue Sky" Laws
604
3.
Federal Regulation of Corporate Governance
604
C.
Bankruptcy
606
D.
Antitrust Law
609
1.
Applicable Law
609
2.
Prohibited Practices
610
3.
Federal Antitrust Remedies and Enforcement Powers
615
4.
Exemptions and Reach of Federal Antitrust Laws
616
E.
Labor and Employment Law
616
1.
Nature of the Individual Employment Relationship
617
2.
Laws Protecting Workers
619
3.
Employment Discrimination
620
4.
Rights to Unionize and to Act and Bargain Collectively
625
a.
Union Organizing
627
b.
Unfair Labor Practices
627
c.
Protected Action for Other Mutual Aid and Protection
628
d.
Collective Bargaining
628
e.
Strikes, Boycotts and Other Tactics
629
f.
Disputes Under the Collective Bargaining Agreement
630
g.
The Union's Duty of Fair Representation
631
F.
Environmental Law
632
1.
Pesticides and Other Toxic Substances
633
2.
Air Pollution
633
3.
Water Pollution
634
4.
Cleanups of Sites Contaminated with Toxic Substances
636
5.
Hazardous Waste Management
638
6.
State Environmental Laws
638
7.
Environmental Impact of Actions of the Federal Government
639
8.
Endangered Species
641
ch. XVI
Tax Law
643
A.
Sources of Law and Basic Concepts in Federal Tax Law
643
1.
Sources of Law
643
2.
Basic Concepts in Tax Law
645
B.
Federal Income Tax
646
1.
Taxpayers, the Tax Base and Taxable Income
646
2.
Tax Rates
647
3.
Taxable Income
648
a.
Gross Income
648
b.
Arriving at Taxable Income
649
c.
Deductible Expenses
650
d.
Capital Cost Recovery: Depreciation, Depletion Allowances, and Amortization
650
4.
Adjusted Gross Income
652
5.
The Sale or Disposition of Property
652
a.
Non-Realization and Non-Recognition of Gain
652
b.
Gain or Loss Realized from Disposition
653
6.
The Taxable Year and Accounting Methods
659
7.
Tax Credits
661
8.
Income Tax on Corporations
661
a.
Double Taxation of Corporate Income
661
b.
Income Tax Issues in Formation of the Corporation
664
c.
Income Tax Issues in Operating the Corporation
666
(1).
Distributions to Shareholders
666
(2).
Compensation of Corporation Employees
670
d.
Income Tax Issues in Corporate Mergers and Liquidations
671
9.
Taxation of "Pass-Through" Entities or "Fiscally Transparent" Entities
672
C.
International Tax Issues
673
1.
Tax on Foreign Income of U.S. Taxpayers
673
2.
Tax on U.S. Source Income of Foreign Taxpayers
675
D.
Other Federal Taxes
677
1.
The Payroll Tax
677
2.
Excise Taxes
677
3.
The Estate and Gift Taxes
677
E.
State and Local Taxes
678
1.
The Sales Tax
678
2.
The Property Tax
678
3.
Franchise Taxes
678
4.
State and Local Income Taxes
678
F.
Administration of Tax Laws
678
1.
Initial Screening of Returns
679
2.
Tax Audits
679
3.
Administrative Protests and Appeals
680
4.
Judicial Review
680
5.
Tax Lawyers and Advisors
681
ch. XVII
International Aspects Of United States Law
683
pt. I
International Law and Its Application in the United States
683
A.
Sources, Forms and Hierarchy of International Law Rules
683
1.
Sources and Forms
683
a.
Treaties
683
b.
Customary Rules of International Law
684
(1).
Criteria for Customary Rules
684
(2).
How Customary Rules Develop
685
(3).
Nature of Customary Rules
685
(4).
Documentary Sources of Customary International Law
686
c.
General Principles of Law
687
2.
The Hierarchy of the Forms and Sources of International Law
687
B.
International Law in the U.S. Legal System
688
1.
U.S. Law of Treaties and Other International Agreements
688
a.
Treaty Power Under the Constitution
688
(1).
Procedures for Making and Ratifying Treaties
688
(2).
Scope of the Treaty Power Under the Constitution
689
(3).
Enforcing U.S. Treaties: Self-Executing and Non-Self-Executing Treaties
690
b.
Executive Agreements
692
(1).
Congressional-Executive Agreements
692
(2).
Free-Standing Executive Agreements
693
2.
The Place of International Law in the U.S. Domestic Legal Order
694
a.
The United States as a "Dualist" State
694
b.
International Law in the U.S. Domestic Hierarchy of Laws
695
(1).
"Federal" International Law's Relationship to State Law
695
(2).
International Law Among Other Forms of Federal Law
696
c.
Compensation for the Low Hierarchical Position of International Law in the Domestic U.S. Legal Order
698
(1).
Vested Private Rights Under Treaties
698
(2).
Narrow Interpretations of Statutes to Avoid Conflict
699
C.
War Powers and Military Intervention Under U.S. Law
700
1.
Shared Powers of the President and Congress
700
2.
Presidential Action Independent of Congress
700
D.
Remedies for Violations of International Law
701
1.
U.S. Law on Remedies in General
702
2.
U.S. Amenability to Jurisdiction of International Tribunals
702
3.
Enforcement of International Law in U.S. Courts
703
a.
Enforcement of Private Rights Under Treaties
703
b.
Private Rights Under Customary International Law: The Alien Tort Statute
703
pt. II
International Litigation in U.S. Courts
705
A.
Extraterritorial Reach of U.S. Law and Judicial Process
705
1.
Legislative Jurisdiction
705
a.
The Territoriality Principle
705
b.
Exceptions to Territoriality
706
(1).
The Nationality Principle
706
(2).
The Protective Principle
707
(3).
The Passive Personality Principle
707
(4).
The Principle of Universal Jurisdiction
708
c.
Effects as a Basis for Extraterritorial Jurisdiction
708
d.
The Overall Reasonableness Test
711
e.
Legislative Jurisdiction by Consent
713
2.
Extraterritorial Judicial Jurisdiction
714
a.
International Application of the Minimum Contacts Test
714
(1).
Minimum Contacts with U.S. States in the International Setting
714
(2).
Minimum Contacts with the Entire U.S. for Federal Claims in Federal Court
715
(3).
Special Treatment of International Defendants
715
b.
Forum Non Conveniens as a Basis for Declining Judicial Jurisdiction in International Cases
716
3.
Jurisdiction to Enforce
717
a.
Administrative Enforcement Action
718
b.
Judicially-Allied Enforcement Actions: Criminal Cases
718
(1).
Extraterritorial Investigation and Arrest
718
(2).
Extradition from a Foreign State
720
(3).
High Seas, Customs Waters and International Airspace
721
c.
Extraterritorial Reach of U.S. Civil Process and Court Orders
722
(1).
Service of Process on Foreign Defendants
722
(2).
Discovery of Evidence Abroad
724
B.
International Enforcement of Judgments
726
1.
Enforcement of U.S. Judgments by Foreign Courts
726
2.
Enforcement of Foreign Judgments by U.S. Courts
727
3.
A Potential Treaty on Judgment Enforcement
727
4.
Enforcement of International Arbitration Awards
728
C.
Suits Involving Foreign States and Their Official Acts
728
1.
Sovereign Immunity
728
a.
Scope of the Foreign Sovereign Immunity Act
729
b.
When Sovereign Immunity Does Not Apply
730
2.
The Act of State Doctrine
733
a.
Scope of and Rationale for the Act of State Doctrine
733
b.
Exceptions to the Act of State Doctrine
734
Appendix A
Legal Materials and Diagrams
1
Appendix B
Addresses of Major Publishers of U.S. Legal Materials and Sources of U.S. Law on the Internet
1
Appendix C
Table of Cases
1
Index
1