Summary of Contents

v

Abbreviations

xxi

Accountability for Human Rights Violations by International Organisations: Introductory Remarks / Pierre Schmitt

1

I.

Background

1

II.

Aim of the Book

1

III.

Contentious Legal Issues

5

A.

Are International Organisations Bound by International Human Rights Norms?

5

B.

Accountability of Member States of International Organisations

10

C.

Obstacles to Accountability of International Organisations

11

D.

The Need to Create Mechanisms To Ensure Accountability

13

IV.

Structure of the Book

15

A.

General Concepts

15

B.

Peace and Humanitarian Operations

16

C.

International Civil Administration

16

D.

Economic Governance

17

E.

Staff of International Organisations

18

pt. I

General Concepts

Accountability of International Organisations: An Evolving Legal Concept? / Ige F. Dekker

21

I.

Introduction

21

II.

Concepts of Accountability

23

A.

Approaches to Accountability

23

B.

The ILA Concept of Accountability

25

C.

Critical Assessment

28

III.

An institutional Concept of Accountability

31

A.

An Institutional Approach

31

B.

Accountability as a Legal Institution

32

C.

Accountability and the Institutional Character of International Organisations

34

IV.

Concluding Observation

36

International Organisations as Independent Actors: Sweet Memory or Functionally Necessary? / Niels M. Blokker

37

I.

Introduction

37

II.

Attribution of Powers

39

III.

International Legal Personality

43

IV.

The Theory and Practice of the Independence of International Secretariats

46

V.

Concluding Remarks

49

Human Rights and the Rise of International Organisations: The Logic of Sliding Scales in the Law of International Responsibility / Olivier De Schutter

51

I.

The Human Rights Obligations of International Organisations

55

A.

The international Organisation S̀ucceeding' to the Human Rights Obligations of Its Member States

57

B.

Human Rights as Part of General Public International Law

68

II.

The Problem of Accountability -- One: State Responsibility

73

A.

The Establishment of the International Organisation and the Initial Transfer of Powers

77

B.

The Decision-Making Process Within the Organisation

86

C.

The Implementation of Decisions Adopted by International Organisations

94

D.

The Logic of Sliding Scales in Examining Questions of State Responsibility

102

III.

The Problem of Accountability -- Two: The Responsibility of International Organisations

104

A.

Self-Regulation

104

B.

Accession to International Human Rights Treaties

110

C.

The Role of National Courts

119

D.

The Logic of Sliding Scales Expanded

123

IV.

Conclusion

125

Binding International Organisations to Member State Treaties or Responsibility of Member States for Their Own Actions in the Framework of International Organisations / Frederik Naert

129

Introduction

129

I.

Are International Organisations Bound by Treaties Concluded by Their Member States?

130

A.

General Considerations

130

B.

The EU, GATT and Customs Agreements

136

C.

The EU and the ECHR

138

D.

The EU and Other Member State Treaties, Including the UN Charter

139

E.

Other International Organisations

154

II.

Some Reflections on Responsibility of Member States for Their Own Actions in the Framework of International Organisations

155

A.

Responsibility for the Actions of an International Organisation Resulting from Its Establishment

156

B.

Responsibility of a Member State for Its Own Subsequent Conduct in the Framework of an International Organisation

162

Conclusion

168

The Ìtalian job': How to Make International Organisations Compliant with Human Rights and Accountable for Their Violation by Targeting Member States / Matteo Tondini

169

I.

Introduction

169

II.

A Few Remarks on Legal Personality and Accountability of International Organisations

172

A.

The Attribution of Legal Personality to International Organisations and Their Accountability to Third Parties

172

B.

The Establishment of Internal Claim Settlement Mechanisms

174

C.

Àccountability' and ̀Responsibility'

176

D.

The ILC Draft Articles

177

III.

Possible Responsibility of UN Member States in Peace Operations

180

A.

Possible Responsibility of Contributing States for Violations Committed by UN Military Forces

180

B.

Possible Responsibility of Member States for Violations Committed by UN Police Forces and Civilian Officers

185

C.

Possible Human Violations Committed by UN Territorial Administrations: The UNMIK Case

188

IV.

Some Brief Remarks on International Organisations as Subjects Bound to Human Rights Law and Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Treaties

191

A.

The Mandatory Nature of Human Rights Law for International Organisations

191

B.

The Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Conventions

193

V.

The "Job": Bringing States to Courts

195

A.

Finding the Right Forum

195

B.

International Courts

198

VI.

The "Italian Job" in the Most Recent Case Law (Be Assured -- Your Sins Will Find You Out!)

201

A.

The Behrami & Saramati Cases

202

B.

The Al-Jedda Case

206

C.

Other Relevant Cases

208

VII.

Concluding Remarks

211

pt. II

Peace and Humanitarian Operations

Human Rights Accountability of International Organisations in the Lead of International Peace Missions / Ulf Haußler

215

I.

Preliminary Remarks and Introduction

215

II.

The Institutionalisation of Transitional Authority -- A Brief Typology of Peace Missions

218

III.

The Effects of Actions of Peacekeeping Operations on Human Rights

222

A.

Exercise of Transitional Authority vis-a-vis Ex- and Would-Be-Belligerents or Governance Institutions in Receiving States

223

B.

Exercise of Transitional Authority Directly Affecting the General Public

226

C.

Conclusion

229

IV.

Attribution of Conduct of Peacekeeping Operations to International Organisations

229

A.

To Whom to Attribute I: Peace Missions or Lead Organisations?

230

B.

To Whom to Attribute II: Lead Organisations or Contributing States?

232

C.

Further Attribution Criteria

251

D.

Conclusion

253

V.

Denning the Limits of Transitional Authority of Peacekeeping Operations

253

A.

The Emerging Customary International Law of Peace Missions

255

B.

General Principles of International Humanitarian and Human Rights Law

257

C.

Conclusion

259

VI.

Balancing Public and Private Interests in the Framework of International Peacekeeping

259

A.

Self-Defence

259

B.

Military Necessity and Operational Necessity

261

C.

Claims

264

D.

Judicial Review of Operational Detention?

266

VII.

Conclusion

268

Accountability of the United Nations: The Case of Srebrenica / Peter R. Baehr

269

I.

Introduction

269

II.

What Happened at Srebrenica

270

III.

The Role of Dutchbat

274

IV.

The Role of the Ìnternational Community'

278

V.

Accountability

280

VI.

Conclusion

285

On the Social Life of International Organisations: Framing Accountability in Refugee Resettlement / Kristin Bergtora Sandvik

287

I.

Introduction

287

II.

The Problem

288

III.

Framing Legal Humanitarianism

290

IV.

Contextualising Accountability

292

V.

Resettlement as Humanitarian Practice

296

VI.

Surviving Torture Credibly

298

VII.

Doing and Living Accountability Standards

302

VIII.

Concluding Observations

306

pt. III

International Civil Administration

Understanding the International Territorial Administration Accountability Deficit: Trusteeship and the Legitimacy of International Organisations / Ralph Wilde

311

I.

Introduction

311

II.

Trusteeship

313

A.

Colonial Trusteeship

313

B.

International Territorial Administration as a Form of Trusteeship

316

C.

The Progressive Internationalisation of Trusteeship

316

III.

Accountability under Trusteeship

317

A.

Humanising Colonialism

317

B.

Requirement of Accountability

318

C.

Accountability in the Trusteeship Context

318

IV.

Reviving the Trusteeship Council

320

A.

International Oversight of State-Conducted Trusteeship

320

B.

The Trusteeship Council and ITA

321

V.

Self-Determination as an Explanation for the Lack of Accountability

322

A.

The Repudiation of Trusteeship

322

B.

The Link with Accountability

324

VI.

The ̀Legitimacy' of International Organisations as an Explanation for the Lack of Accountability

324

A.

Normative Ideas of State-Conducted Trusteeship

325

B.

Normative Ideas of International Organisations

326

VII.

Conclusion

329

Human Rights Accountability of International Administrations: Theory and Practice in East Timor / Eric De Brabandere

331

I.

Introduction

331

II.

Human Rights Obligations of International Organisations

333

A.

The UN Charter

334

B.

Human Rights as Customary International Law

335

C.

Human Rights and Military Contingents

339

D.

Observations on the Attribution of Conduct

342

III.

Immunity and Accountability Mechanisms in East Timor

344

A.

UNTAET's Human Rights Obligations

345

B.

Immunity of International Actors

346

C.

Alternative Accountability Mechanisms

349

IV.

Conclusion

354

Should the United Nations Create an Independent Human Rights Body in a Transitional Administration? The Case of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) / Remzije Istrefi

355

I.

Introduction

355

II.

UNMIK's Mandate as a Cause of Human Rights Violations

359

III.

The Applicable Law in Kosovo and UNMIK Accountability

361

IV.

UNMIK Accountability at the Domestic level

362

A.

Judicial Review

362

B.

Ombudsperson Institution in Kosovo

363

V.

UNMIK's Accountability at the International Level

364

A.

Is the Advisory Panel an Adequate Mechanism to Deal with Alleged Human Rights Violations in Kosovo?

366

B.

Creation of a Human Rights Protection Mechanism: A Sui Generis Body for Kosovo

367

C.

The Authority for Establishing the UN Commission for Kosovo

369

D.

The Mandate and Structure of the UN Commission for Kosovo

369

E.

Composition of the UN Commission for Kosovo

370

F.

Procedural Rules of the UN Commission for Kosovo

370

G.

Jurisdiction of the UN Commission for Kosovo

371

H.

UNMIK's Accountability in Front of the UN Commission for Kosovo

372

VI.

Conclusion

372

The Ombudsperson Institution vs the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) / Gjylbehare Bella Murati

373

I.

Introduction

373

II.

The United Nations Mission in Kosovo

374

A.

The Legal Framework Governing the UNMIK

374

B.

The Legal Implications Arising from UN SC Resolution 1244

376

C.

The United Nations Domestic Lawmaking

377

D.

UNMIK and Its Role in the Judiciary

378

III.

The Ombudsperson Institution

382

A.

Protecting Residential Property (Housing and Property Directorate and Housing and Property Claims Commission)

384

B.

Protecting the Right to Liberty and Security of Person

390

C.

Protecting Freedom of Expression

393

IV.

Conclusion

397

pt. IV

Economic Governance

Accountability of International Organisations: An Analysis of the World Bank's Inspection Panel / Rekha Oleschak-Pillai

401

I.

Accountability in International Law

402

A.

Accountability of International Organisations

404

B.

Who is Accountable?

406

C.

For What?

406

D.

To Whom?

407

E.

By What Mechanisms?

408

F.

With What Outcomes?

408

II.

World Bank and Human Rights Violations

408

III.

Inspection Panel

409

A.

Perceptions in International Legal Discourse

411

B.

Operational Standards and Policies

413

IV.

Investigations by the Inspection Panel

415

A.

India Ecodevelopment Project (1998)

416

B.

NTPC Project (1997)

420

C.

Coal India Project (2001)

422

D.

Mumbai Urban Transport Project (2004)

425

V.

Outcomes and Concluding Remarks

428

The Accountability of the International Monetary Fund for Human Rights Violations / Pierre Schmitt

431

I.

The Sources of the International Human Rights Obligations of the IMF

434

II.

The Significance of the Human Rights Obligations of the IMF

438

A.

The Mandate of the IMF

438

B.

The Practice of the IMF

440

C.

Evolution of the Mandate and the Practice of the IMF

443

III.

Mechanisms of Accountability

447

A.

Accountability: Probably the Weakest Aspect of IMF Governance

447

B.

Internal Accountability Mechanism

449

C.

External Accountability Mechanisms

453

IV.

Conclusion

459

The World Trade Organization: An Obstacle to Enforcing Human Rights Obligations? / Nicola Jagers

461

I.

Introduction

461

II.

An Example: Brazil

462

III.

The Permissibility of Import Bans on Sugar and Steel from Brazil under WTO Law

466

A.

Article XI of the GATT

466

B.

Article I of the GATT

466

C.

Article III:4 of the GATT

468

IV.

WTO Dispute Settlement and Human Rights

470

V.

Import Bans as Countermeasure

472

VI.

Legal Standing

474

VII.

Does the Prohibition of Forced Labour Entail an Obligation Erga Qmnes?

477

VIII.

Can General International Law Serve as an Autonomous Defence in WTO Dispute Settlement?

480

IX.

Conclusion

484

TRIPs and Human Rights: Access to Cheaper AIDS Medicines / Christine Janssens

485

I.

Introduction

485

II.

The Development of Intellectual Property Protection

486

III.

The Rights to Access AIDS Medicines, TRIPs and Patent Rationale

487

IV.

Balancing Intellectual Property Rights and Right to Health

493

V.

Accountability Mechanisms

499

VI.

Conclusion

503

Accountability of Development Agencies through the Use of Human Rights Indicators / Gauthier De Beco

505

I.

Introduction

505

II.

The Accountability of Development Agencies for Their Human Rights Obligations

506

A.

The Human Rights Obligations of Development Agencies

506

B.

Monitoring Mechanisms for Development Agencies

508

III.

Human Rights Indicators to Monitor Development Programmes

509

A.

Developing Human Rights Indicators

511

B.

Data on Human Rights Violations

513

C.

Structural, Process and Outcome Indicators

517

IV.

The Use of Human Rights Indicators in Development Programming

519

A.

Establishing Human Rights Indicators for Development Programmes

519

B.

Actors using Human Rights Indicators for Development Programmes

521

V.

Conclusion

522

pt. V

Staff of International Organisations

Accountability of International Organisations for Violations of the Human Rights of Staff / Chittharanjan Felix Amerasinghe

527

I.

International Organisations and the Substantive Law of Human Rights

527

II.

Accountability

531

A.

Desirability of Judicial Machinery

531

B.

Judicial Machinery: A Human Right

535

C.

Authority to Establish Courts

536

III.

Independence of Judicial Organs

538

A.

Qualifications

539

B.

Emoluments

540

C.

Renewals of Terms of Appointment

540

IV.

Human Rights Recognised by International Administrative Tribunals

541

A.

Discrimination Based on Sex

541

B.

Due Process of Law

542

V.

Conclusion

543

Human Rights Accountability of International Organisations vis-a-vis Their Staff: The United Nations / Sarah Hunt

545

Introduction

545

I.

The History of Diplomatic Immunity: How Did It Become Professionalised?

546

II.

An Internal Recognition of Failings of the UN Legal System

548

III.

Applicability of Human Rights Principles and International Law: General Understanding vs Practice in the Field of the Law of the International Civil Service

549

IV.

The Potential Application of Public International Law to International Organisations

552

A. What Substantive Legal Standards Apply to the Rights and Entitlements of International Organisation Staff Members?

553

B.

These and Many Other Employees Rights are Guaranteed in Various ILO Conventions, in Most National Legal Systems and in European Union Laws

553

C.

A Relevant and Related Question is the Extent to Which International Law or Fundamental Concepts such as Due Process, Are Applicable

553

V.

Internal Claims Involve Appeals Against Administrative Decisions Relating to Discipline of Staff or Grievances, Involving Other Staff or Management

556

VI.

The UN Redesign Panel Report

559

Conclusion

565

Workplace Equality in International Organisations: Why is It an Illusory Concept? / Osmat Azzam Jefferson

567

I.

Introduction

567

II.

Equality and Discrimination Concepts in International Organisations

570

III.

Mapping the Core Rules in the Ensemble of Employment Conditions

572

A.

The Contract with the Organisation

572

B.

What Are the Statutory Elements?

573

C.

The Right of Recourse to an Administrative Court

574

IV.

How Are the Core Rules Used and What is Their Impact on Staff?

577

A.

Effect on Junior Staff

577

B.

Effect on Selected Groups of Staff

580

V.

What Core Elements are Needed to Realise Equality?

584

A.

The Unilateral Right of the Organisation to Amend Statutory Elements

584

B.

Ambiguous and Unclear Broad Provisions of Anti-Discrimination Laws

585

VI.

Informal Remedies and Administrative Courts

586

A.

Accountability Standards and Their Enforcement

587

B.

Can These Legal Discrepancies be Challenged and Changed?

588

VII.

Personal View

589

An International Organisation's Point of View / Edward Kwakwa

591

I.

Introduction

591

II.

Human Rights Obligations of International Organisations

592

III.

Human Rights Obligations of International Organisations vis-a-vis Their Staff Members

594

IV.

Conclusion

600

List of Contributors

601

Table of Cases

607

Index

617