International environmental law and policy / by David Hunter, James Salzman, Durwood Zaelke.
2011
K3585 .H86 2011 (Map It)
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Details
Author
Title
International environmental law and policy / by David Hunter, James Salzman, Durwood Zaelke.
Published
New York : Foundation Press ; [St. Paul, Minn.] : Thomson/West, 2011.
Call Number
K3585 .H86 2011
Edition
Fourth edition.
ISBN
9781599415383
1599415380
1599415380
Description
li, 1,508 pages : illustrations ; 26 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)696132587
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Series
Record Appears in
Added Author
Table of Contents
Introduction
v
Note on The Internet and Treaty Supplement
xi
Acknowledgments
xiii
Table of Cases
xvii
I.
The Creation and Development of International Environmental Law
ch. One
The Wild Environmental Facts
1
I.
Global Environmental Challenges
1
A.
Climate Change
2
B.
Ozone Depletion
5
C.
Species Extinction and Loss of Biodiversity
6
D.
Pollution From Toxic Chemicals and Hazardous Waste
9
E.
Ecosystem Services
10
Questions and Discussion
13
II.
Local and Regional Environmental Challenges
14
A.
Access to Fresh Water
15
B.
Air Pollution
16
C.
Food Security and Agriculture
17
Questions and Discussion
19
III.
Poverty
21
Questions and Discussion
24
IV.
Synergies, Cliffs and Uncertainty
25
A.
Synergistic Interactions of Toxins
26
B.
Environmental Cliffs and Tipping Points
27
Questions and Discussion
29
C.
Decision-Making in the Face of Scientific Uncertainty
30
Questions and Discussion
32
V.
Human Activity and the Environment: The Problem of Scale
33
A.
Scale: The Relative Size of Human Activity Within the Global Ecosystem
34
Questions and Discussion
37
ch. Two
The Root Causes
40
I.
Introduction
40
II.
Consumption, Population and Technology
41
Questions and Discussion
42
A.
Consumption-Living in a Material World
44
1.
The Challenges Posed by Consumption
44
Questions and Discussion
51
2.
The Role of Law in Consumption
54
Questions and Discussion
56
Problem Exercise: Consumption and Climate Change
57
B.
Population Growth
61
1.
The Challenges Posed by Population
61
2.
The Role of Law in Population
64
Questions and Discussion
66
3.
Next Steps for Population
68
Problem Exercise: "Reality Theology" and Foreign Aid
70
Questions and Discussion
72
C.
Technology: Promises, Perils and Pushes
74
1.
Promises and Perils of Technology
74
Questions and Discussion
77
2.
Pushing Technology
80
Questions and Discussion
83
III.
Values, Norms, and Environmental Protection
86
A.
Cultural Values and Social Norms
86
Questions and Discussion
88
B.
Environmental Ethics
92
Questions and Discussion
95
Problem Exercise-Personal Spending and Personal Responsibility
99
Questions and Discussion
100
ch. Three
Economics and Sustainable Development
102
I.
Introduction
102
II.
Economics and Environmental Protection
103
A.
Public Goods and the Tragedy of the (Mis-managed) Commons
104
B.
Externalities
105
C.
Legal Options for Overcoming Externalities
107
1.
Prescriptive Regulation
108
2.
Property Rights
108
a.
Tradable Permits
110
3.
Financial Penalties
111
a.
Liability
111
4.
Eliminating Payments and Subsidies
112
5.
Persuasion
113
Questions and Discussion
114
III.
Reconceiving Economics and Ecology
117
A.
Ecological Economics
117
Questions and Discussion
120
B.
Sustainability
123
Questions and Discussion
131
ch. Four
A Brief History From Stockholm to Johannesburg
135
I.
Introduction
135
Questions and Discussion
139
II.
The Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment
140
A.
The Road to Stockholm
140
B.
At Stockholm
143
1.
The Stockholm Action Plan
143
2.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)-
144
3.
The Stockholm Declaration
144
Questions and Discussion
145
III.
From Stockholm to Rio: The Emergence of Sustainable Development
146
A.
Our Common Future and Sustainable Development
147
Questions and Discussion
152
IV.
UNCED and the Rio Declaration
154
Questions and Discussion
161
A.
The Rio Declaration
162
Questions and Discussion
167
B.
Agenda 21
168
Questions and Discussion
169
V.
From Rio to Johannesburg: Globalization versus Sustainable Development?
170
A.
Sustainable Development After UNCED
171
Questions and Discussion
175
B.
The Rise of Globalization
178
Questions and Discussion
180
VI.
The World Summit on Sustainable Development
180
A.
Preparing for the WSSD
180
B.
The Johannesburg Declaration
181
C.
The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation
182
D.
Partnerships for Sustainable Development
183
Questions and Discussion
185
VII.
Where Do We Go From Here?
186
Questions and Discussion
188
ch. Five
International Organizations and Non-State Actors
190
I.
The United Nations
192
A.
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
192
Questions and Discussion
196
B.
Commission on Sustainable Development
198
C.
United Nations Development Program
201
Questions and Discussion
202
II.
Reforming the UN for Environmental Protection
203
A.
Environmental Protection Council
206
B.
Global Environmental Organization
209
C.
World Environment Organization
211
D.
Trusteeship of the Global Commons
213
E.
Developing Country Concerns
214
Questions and Discussion
217
III.
International Financial Institutions
220
A.
Introduction
220
1.
The North-South Debate Over Financing
221
2.
Governance and the Democracy Deficit
222
3.
Globalization
223
Questions and Discussion
224
B.
The International Monetary Fund
225
Questions and Discussion
227
C.
The World Bank Group
228
1.
The World Bank Group's Structure
228
2.
Environmental Reform at the World Bank
229
3.
The Bank's Environmental and Social Policy Framework
230
Questions and Discussion
232
4.
The World Bank Inspection Panel
236
Questions and Discussion
237
D.
The Global Environment Facility
237
1.
Governance and Structure of the GEF
238
Questions and Discussion
240
E.
Innovative Financial Sources and Mechanisms
242
Questions and Discussion
246
IV.
Administering Treaties: CoPs, Secretariats and Subsidiary Bodies
247
A.
Conferences of the Parties
247
B.
Secretariats
250
C.
Subsidiary Bodies and Committees
252
D.
Creation of Expert Communities
254
V.
The Role of Non-State Actors
255
A.
Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)
255
Questions and Discussion
263
B.
Corporations
265
Questions and Discussion
268
ch. Six
International Environmental Lawmaking
269
I.
Introduction: The Changing Nature of International Law
269
Questions and Discussion
280
II.
Traditional Sources of Law
285
A.
Treaties
286
1.
Definition of a Treaty
286
2.
The Treaty-Making Process
288
a.
Identification of Needs and Goals
288
b.
Negotiation
292
Questions and Discussion
295
c.
Adoption and Authentication
299
d.
Ratification and Accession
300
e.
Limited Consent and Reservations
301
f.
Entry into Force
302
g.
Renunciation and Withdrawal
302
3.
Keeping Treaties Up-to-Date
303
4.
Interpreting a Treaty
304
Questions and Discussion
305
B.
Custom
307
1.
Proving Custom
308
A.
State Practice
308
B.
Opinio Juris
309
C.
The Persistent Objector
309
2.
Customary Law and Environmental Protection
309
3.
Lawmaking Treaties and Custom
310
4.
Peremptory Norms of International Law (Jus Cogens)
310
5.
Erga Omnes Obligations
311
Questions and Discussion
312
C.
General Principles
312
1.
Introduction
312
Questions and Discussion
317
2.
Sources for General Principles
317
a.
Multilateral Forums
318
Questions and Discussion
320
b.
Natural Law
321
Questions and Discussion
324
c.
Ethics
326
Questions and Discussion
328
Questions and Discussion
331
3.
Sustainable Development as a General Principle of International Law
332
Questions and Discussion
340
D.
Judicial Decisions and the Writings of Eminent Publicists
342
Questions and Discussion
344
E.
"Soft" Law and International Environmental Norms
344
Questions and Discussion
353
III.
Building Consensus
355
Questions and Discussion
357
ch. Seven
Making International Environmental Law Work
361
I.
Introduction
361
A.
Key Concepts
363
Questions and Discussion
367
B.
Compliance Theory
371
1.
Rationalist Theories
372
Questions and Discussion
374
2.
Normative Theories
375
Questions and Discussion
379
C.
Implementation and Domestication
381
Questions and Discussion
384
Problem, Exercise: Predicting Compliance
385
II.
From Theory to Practice: Strategies for Effectiveness
386
A.
Treaty Design
387
1.
Clear Substantive Obligations
387
2.
Legitimacy
389
Questions and Discussion
391
B.
Compliance Monitoring and Reporting
393
Questions and Discussion
396
C.
Responding to Noncompliance
399
1.
Deterrence-Sanctions and Loss of Benefits
399
2.
Deterrence-Liability
401
Questions and Discussion
403
3.
Deterrence-Extraterritorial Application
405
Questions and Discussion
406
4.
Compliance Facilitation
407
a.
Financial Cooperation
408
b.
Technology Transfer
409
c.
Differential Implementation Schedules and Obligations
409
Questions and Discussion
410
5.
Dispute Resolution
412
Questions and Discussion
415
6.
Bringing It Together: Compliance Mechanisms
416
Problem Exercise: Noncompliance Procedures in the Kyoto Protocol
417
Questions and Discussion
420
D.
Role of Non-State Actors
422
1.
Public Participation and the Aarhus Convention
422
Questions and Discussion
425
2.
Activating Domestic Constituencies
425
Questions and Discussion
429
Problem Exercise: Measuring Success
432
Problem Exercise: The Baker's Dozen of Compliance Myths
433
ch. Eight
Principles and Concepts in International Environmental Law
434
I.
Introduction
434
A.
Codification and Sources of International Environmental Principles
435
Questions and Discussion
438
B.
The Functions of Principles and Concepts in International Environmental Law
439
II.
Principles Shaping International Environmental Law and Policy
442
A.
State Sovereignty
442
Questions and Discussion
445
B.
Eight to Development
446
Questions and Discussion
450
C.
Common Heritage of Humankind
452
Questions and Discussion
456
D.
Common Concern of Humankind
459
Questions and Discussion
460
E.
Intergenerational Equity
461
Questions and Discussion
463
F.
Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
464
Questions and Discussion
465
G.
State Responsibility
467
Questions and Discussion
468
H.
Obligation Not to Cause Environmental Harm
472
Questions and Discussion
474
I.
The Precautionary Principle
477
Questions and Discussion
479
J.
The Polluter and User Pays Principle
484
Questions and Discussion
486
K.
Subsidiarity
488
Questions and Discussion
490
L.
Good Neighborliness and the Duty to Cooperate
491
M.
Duties to Provide Prior Notification and to Consult in Good Faith
493
Questions and Discussion
494
N.
The Principle of Prior Informed Consent
495
Questions and Discussion
496
O.
Duty to Assess Environmental Impacts
498
Questions and Discussion
500
P.
Public Participation and Access to Information
502
Questions and Discussion
502
II.
International Environmental Protection
ch. Nine
Transboundary Air Pollution
504
I.
Introduction to Air Pollution Issues
504
Questions and Discussion
507
II.
Customary International Law and Transboundary Air Pollution
509
A.
The Trail Smelter Arbitration
509
Questions and Discussion
515
III.
Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
518
A.
The North American Approach
521
1.
The 1991 U.S.-Canada Bilateral Air Quality Agreement
521
Questions and Discussion
523
B.
The European Approach: The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
525
Questions and Discussion
528
ch. Ten
Ozone Depletion
532
I.
Introduction to Ozone Depletion -
532
A.
The Science of Ozone Depletion
535
1.
The Stratospheric Ozone Layer
535
2.
The Destruction of Stratospheric Ozone
536
3.
Impacts of Increased UV-B
539
B.
The Economics of Ozone Depleting Substances
541
Questions and Discussion
543
II.
The Montreal Protocol Regime
544
A.
Prologue to Vienna
545
B.
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985)
546
Questions and Discussion
550
C.
Preparations for Montreal
550
D.
The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)
552
1.
Coverage
552
2.
Trade Measures
553
3.
Technical and Financial Assistance
553
4.
Ratification and Amendments
554
E.
The London Adjustments and Amendments to the Montreal Protocol (1990)
555
1.
New Reduction Schedules
555
2.
Developing Countries
556
3.
Funding Mechanisms
557
4.
Non-compliance Procedure
558
5.
Technology Transfer
558
F.
Further Adjustments and Amendments
558
G.
The Montreal Protocol With Amendments and Revisions
559
Questions and Discussion
564
III.
Current Status and Cross-Cutting Themes
566
A.
Implementation Challenges
566
1.
U.S. Implementation Measures
568
Questions and Discussion
570
B.
Non-Compliance Procedures
573
Questions and Discussion
575
C.
The Montreal Protocol Multilateral Fund
578
Questions and Discussion
579
D.
The Montreal Protocol and International Trade
582
Questions and Discussion
584
E.
The Role of Industry and ICOLP
586
Questions and Discussion
588
F.
Montreal Protocol and Climate Protection
589
Questions and Discussion
592
G.
Lessons From the Ozone Layer
595
Questions and Discussion
596
H.
The Future of the Montreal Protocol
599
1.
HFCs
599
2.
Feedstock Use of HCFCs
601
3.
NO Emissions
602
Questions and Discussion
604
ch. Eleven
The Law of Climate Change
606
I.
Introduction to Climate Change
607
II.
The Science of Climate Change
611
A.
The Causes of Climate Change
613
1.
Increasing Emissions of Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols
613
Questions and Discussion
617
2.
Declining Carbon Sinks
619
Questions and Discussion
620
3.
The Relationship Between GHG Concentrations and Temperature
621
Questions and Discussion
623
B.
The Impacts of Climate Change
624
Questions and Discussion
629
C.
Abrupt Climate Changes
630
Questions and Discussion
632
D.
Complexities and Challenges for Policymakers
634
Questions and Discussion
636
III.
Policy Responses to Climate Change
640
A.
Mitigation Policy Approaches
640
1.
Stabilizing GHG Emissions
641
A.
Economy-Wide Approaches
641
Questions and Discussion
644
B.
Sectoral Approaches
646
Questions and Discussion
650
2.
Past Action on Non-CO Climate Forcing Agents
653
a.
Methane
653
b.
Black Carbon
654
c.
Tropospheric Ozone
655
D.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
655
e.
Forests and Biosequestration
656
Questions and Discussion
656
3.
Beyond Stabilization: Going Carbon Negative
657
Questions and Discussion
659
4.
Technology Pathways for a Low-Carbon Future
660
Questions and Discussion
661
5.
Assessing the Costs and Benefits of Inaction
663
Questions and Discussion
665
B.
Adaptation
666
Questions and Discussion
669
IV.
The International Response to Climate Change
673
A.
The Global Politics of Climate Change
673
1.
National and Regional Contributions to Climate Change
673
2.
Global Divides in Addressing Climate Change
674
Questions and Discussion
676
B.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
677
Questions and Discussion
683
C.
The Kyoto Protocol
685
1.
The Kyoto Flexibility Mechanisms
690
2.
Forests and Land-Use Changes
691
3.
Compliance Monitoring and Enforcement
693
Questions and Discussion
694
D.
Beyond Kyoto
696
1.
From Bali to Copenhagen
696
2.
The Copenhagen Accord
699
3.
The Way Forward After Copenhagen
705
a.
Legal Architecture
705
b.
Defining Shared Visions: Temperature, Concentration and Emissions Reductions Goals
706
c.
Reducing Emissions From Deforestation and Degradation (REDD)
707
d.
Climate Finance
708
e.
Technology Transfer
710
f.
Adaptation
710
g.
Measurement, Reporting, and Verification (MRV)
711
Questions and Discussion
711
V.
Cross-Cutting and Current Issues
715
A.
The Global Carbon Market
715
1.
The European Emissions Trading System (EU-ETS)
716
2.
Emerging Global Carbon Market
721
Questions and Discussion
722
B.
U.S. Climate Policy
724
Questions and Discussion
726
C.
Private Sector Initiatives
728
Questions and Discussion
729
D.
Climate Litigation, Liability and Compensation
732
Questions and Discussion
737
ch. Twelve
Oceans and Seas
741
I.
History and Background
741
A.
The Oceans
742
B.
History of the Law of the Sea
744
C.
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
745
1.
Jurisdictional Zones
747
2.
Environmental Standards and Duties
748
3.
Dispute Resolution
752
4.
Regional Seas
753
Questions and Discussion
753
Problem Exercise: Shipments of Plutonium
757
Problem Exercise: Who Owns the Arctic?
759
II.
Conservation of Living Marine Resources
761
A.
State of the World's Fisheries
761
Questions and Discussion
764
B.
Fisheries Law
768
1.
Cod Wars
769
2.
UNCLOS
769
3.
The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
773
Questions and Discussion
775
4.
Straddling Stocks
778
a.
Problem Exercise: The Seizure of the Estai
778
b.
The Straddling Stocks Treaty
781
Questions and Discussion
783
5.
Driftnets
786
Questions and Discussion
791
6.
Deep Sea Bottom Trawls
793
Questions and Discussion
795
III.
Marine Pollution From Ships
795
A.
MARPOL 73/78
795
1.
Introduction
795
2.
Annex I: Oil Pollution
797
a.
Mandatory Discharge Standards
798
b.
Construction, Design, Equipment, and Manning Specifications
798
C.
Navigation Standards
799
3.
Compliance
799
Questions and Discussion
800
4.
Enforcement
803
a.
Port and Coastal States
806
b.
Flag States
807
Questions and Discussion
807
5.
Flags of Convenience
808
Questions and Discussion
810
Case Study: The Race to the Bottom and Flagging Standards
815
Questions and Discussion
821
B.
Case Study: The Oil Pollution Act of 1990
823
C.
The London Convention, 1972
823
1.
Background
823
2.
The Permitting Process, Compliance and Enforcement
825
3.
Incineration, Industrial Wastes, and Radioactive Wastes
826
4.
Developing Country Provisions
827
Questions and Discussion
827
Problem Exercise: OSPAR and the Brent Spar
829
Problem Exercise: Decommissioning Nuclear Submarines
833
IV.
Land-Based Marine Pollution
835
V.
Deep Seabed Mining
836
ch. Thirteen
Freshwater Resources
837
I.
Introduction
837
A.
The State of the Planet's Fresh Water Resources
838
B.
The Global Response to Water Scarcity: Commissions, Councils, Forums and Visions
840
Questions and Discussion
841
II.
The Law of International Watercourses
841
A.
Customary Law of International Watercourses
842
1.
Lac Lanoux Arbitration
842
Questions and Discussion
846
2.
The Gabcikovo-Nagymoros Decision
846
Questions and Discussion
858
3.
The Argentina-Uruguay Pulp Mill Decision
858
Questions and Discussion
873
B.
Codification of Universal Principles for Shared Watercourses
873
1.
Definition and Scope of International Watercourses
875
Questions and Discussion
876
2.
Notification and Consultation Among Watercourse States
876
Questions and Discussion
878
3.
Allocation of Shared Water Resources
879
a.
Territorial Sovereignty
879
b.
Territorial Integrity
881
c.
Equitable Utilization
881
Questions and Discussion
883
4.
Protection of the Resource
884
Questions and Discussion
885
III.
Cross-Cutting Issues
888
A.
The Great Lakes and the International Joint Commission
888
Questions and Discussion
891
B.
A Human Right to Affordable and Safe Water
893
Questions and Discussion
895
C.
International Trade and the Commodification of Water
897
Questions and Discussion
897
D.
Environmental Security and Freshwater
899
Questions and Discussion
900
E.
World Commission on Dams
901
Questions and Discussion
906
ch. Fourteen
Hazardous Chemicals, Wastes and Materials
908
I.
Introduction
908
II.
Chemical Manufacture and Exports
911
A.
Chemicals, Public Health and the Environment
911
Questions and Discussion
915
B.
International Trade in Chemicals
917
Questions and Discussion
920
C.
The Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent
920
1.
Voluntary Codes and the Development of Prior Informed Consent
920
2.
The Rotterdam Convention
922
Questions and Discussion
926
D.
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
928
1.
The Dirty Dozen
928
2.
The Negotiations
929
3.
The Stockholm Convention
930
Questions and Discussion
932
E.
Future Directions of Chemicals Regulation
936
1.
The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)
936
Questions and Discussion
937
2.
Mercury and Heavy Metals
938
III.
Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes
942
A.
History and Background
942
1.
Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste
942
2.
Waste Trade Legislation in the United States and Europe
945
3.
The Beginnings of an International Response
946
B.
The Basel Convention
947
1.
Definitions-Hazardous and Other Wastes
948
2.
Basic Obligations
949
3.
Party to Non-Party Ban
952
4.
Waste Minimization and Waste Management
953
5.
Illegal Traffic
954
Questions and Discussion
954
C.
Implementation Issues and Amendments
959
1.
Trade Among OECD Nations
960
2.
The Basel Ban
960
3.
Protocol on Liability
961
Questions and Discussion
963
4.
The Bamako Convention
965
5.
Lome IV Convention and Cotonou Agreement
967
Questions and Discussion
967
D.
Cross-Cutting Themes
969
1.
E-Waste
969
2.
International Trade Law
971
3.
Role of NGOs
972
Questions and Discussion
975
Problem Exercise: The Shipbreakers
976
ch. Fifteen
Biodiversity and Wildlife Conservation
980
I.
History and Background
981
A.
Introduction
981
B.
What Is Biodiversity?
982
Questions and Discussion
985
C.
The Value of Biodiversity
986
Questions and Discussion
987
D.
Wildlife and Biodiversity Loss
989
Questions and Discussion
994
E.
Sustainable Use v. Preservation
995
Questions and Discussion
997
II.
The Biodiversity Convention
999
A.
The Negotiating Process
999
B.
Overview of the Convention
1000
Questions and Discussion
1002
C.
Encouraging National Conservation of Biodiversity
1004
Questions and Discussion
1008
D.
Bio-Prospecting, Benefit-Sharing, and Intellectual Property
1008
Questions and Discussion
1017
E.
Cross-Cutting Issues
1021
1.
Traditional Knowledge and the Biodiversity Convention
1021
Questions and Discussion
1022
2.
The TEIPs Agreement and the Biodiversity Convention
1025
Questions and Discussion
1026
3.
Invasive Species
1028
Questions and Discussion
1032
III.
The Biosafety Protocol
1033
A.
Potential Impacts From GMOs
1033
Questions and Discussion
1037
B.
The Biosafety Protocol
1038
Questions and Discussion
1042
IV.
Wildlife Conservation
1047
A.
Introduction
1047
B.
Whales
1047
1.
History of Whaling
1048
2.
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
1049
3.
The Moratorium and Responses
1054
4.
Breaking the Stalemate
1059
Questions and Discussion
1061
V.
Trade in Endangered Species
1068
A.
Introduction
1068
B.
CITES Provisions
1069
1.
Appendix I
1069
2.
Appendix II
1070
3.
Appendix III
1071
4.
Exceptions and Reservations
1072
Questions and Discussion
1077
C.
CITES in Action: Case Studies
1081
1.
The Elephant Controversy
1081
2.
Mahogany
1084
3.
Sturgeon
1086
Questions and Discussion
1087
D.
Cross-Cutting Issues
1088
1.
Sustainable Use
1088
Questions and Discussion
1090
2.
Role of NGOs
1091
3.
Bushmeat Trade
1093
Questions and Discussion
1094
ch. Sixteen
Protection of Habitat
1097
I.
The Polar Regions
1097
A.
Antarctica
1097
1.
The Ice-Locked Continent
1098
2.
Territorial Claims and the Antarctic Treaty
1099
Questions and Discussion
1103
3.
Common Heritage of Mankind Status
1105
4.
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
1107
Questions and Discussion
1109
5.
The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection
1111
Questions and Discussion
1115
B.
The Arctic Region
1119
1.
Environmental Threats
1119
2.
International Arctic Agreements
1122
3.
Climate Change and Territorial Claims
1125
Questions and Discussion
1126
II.
World Cultural and Natural Heritage
1128
A.
Background
1128
B.
The World Heritage List and List of World Heritage in Danger
1129
C.
The World Heritage Committee
1130
D.
The World Heritage Fund
1131
Questions and Discussion
1131
III.
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
1135
A.
Introduction
1135
B.
The List of Wetlands of International Importance
1137
C.
Site Management and Wise Use
1138
D.
Administration of the Convention
1140
E.
The RAMSAR Convention in Practice
1141
Questions and Discussion
1142
IV.
International Protection of Forests
1144
A.
Introduction
1145
1.
State of the World's Forests
1146
2.
The Ecological Importance of Forests
1149
Questions and Discussion
1150
B.
International Negotiations for Sustainable Forests
1152
1.
The UNCED Forest Principles
1153
Questions and Discussion
1154
2.
Post-UNCED Policy Dialogue and the UN Forum on Forests
1155
Questions and Discussion
1157
C.
Current Issues and Cross-Cutting Themes
1159
1.
Sustainable Forest Management
1159
Questions and Discussion
1161
2.
International Trade and the ITTA
1163
Questions and Discussion
1166
3.
Illegal Logging and Enforcement
1166
Questions and Discussion
1169
4.
Problem Exercise: Negotiation of a Global Legally Binding Forest Convention
1170
V.
Desertification
1172
A.
The Problem of Desertification
1172
B.
The Causes of Desertification
1174
C.
1977 Plan of Action to Combat Desertification
1175
D.
The Convention to Combat Desertification
1177
Questions and Discussion
1182
Problem Exercise-A Soil Treaty
1187
III.
International Environmental Law and Other Legal Regimes
ch. Seventeen
International Trade and Investment Law
1191
I.
The Trade and Environment Debate
1193
A.
Arguments for Liberalized International Trade
1193
1.
Geopolitical Stability
1194
2.
Efficient Use of Scarce Resources
1194
3.
Wealth Creation
1195
4.
Dissemination of Information and Technology
1195
Questions and Discussion
1196
B.
Arguments Against Liberalized Trade
1198
1.
Environmentally Destructive Growth
1198
2.
Threats to Domestic Social Preferences
1199
3.
Pressure for Lower Environmental Standards
1200
4.
Protecting National Defense and Sovereignty
1200
5.
Inequitable Distribution of Wealth and Unsustainable Ecological Scale
1201
Questions and Discussion
1204
C.
The Complexity of the Trade and Environment Debate
1205
Questions and Discussion
1207
1.
Reconciling Trade and Environment
1208
Questions and Discussion
1210
II.
The Multilateral Trading System
1211
A.
Origins and Evolution of the GATT
1211
Questions and Discussion
1214
B.
The World Trade Organization and the Environment
1214
1.
Structure of the WTO
1214
Questions and Discussion
1216
2.
The Dispute Settlement Body
1217
3.
Committee on Trade and Environment
1222
Questions and Discussion
1222
C.
Key Trade and Environment Issues
1224
1.
GATT's Core Principles and the Debate Over "PPM's"
1224
Questions and Discussion
1230
2.
The Environmental Exceptions to GATT-Article XX
1232
a.
Article XX(b)-Protection of Human, Animal and Plant Life or Health
1232
Questions and Discussion
1235
b.
Article XX(g)-Protection of Exhaustible Natural Resources
1236
Questions and Discussion
1240
c.
The Chapeau to Article XX
1241
Questions and Discussion
1245
3.
The WTO and Multilateral Environmental Agreements.-
1246
Questions and Discussion
1250
Problem Exercise-Climate Change and Trade Law
1250
4.
The Precautionary Principle and the SPS Agreement
1252
Questions and Discussion
1254
5.
Subsidies, Fishing and Farming
1256
Questions and Discussion
1260
6.
Intellectual Property and the Environment
1262
7.
Environmental Goods and Services
1264
Questions and Discussion
1265
8.
Public Participation in the WTO
1266
Questions and Discussion
1268
III.
NAFTA and Trade in the Americas
1269
A.
Introduction
1269
Questions and Discussion
1274
B.
The North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation
1275
Questions and Discussion
1277
1.
Article 13 Reports
1277
2.
Public Submissions Under Articles 14 and 15
1280
Questions and Discussion
1284
C.
Toward Trade Liberalization Throughout the Americas -
1287
Questions and Discussion
1288
IV.
Foreign Investment and the Environment
1288
A.
Introduction
1288
Questions and Discussion
1290
B.
The International Law Framework for Foreign Investment and the Environment
1291
Questions and Discussion
1294
1.
Investor State Disputes: The Example of NAFTA Chapter 11
1297
Questions and Discussion
1300
ch. Eighteen
Human Rights and Environment
1307
I.
Introduction
1307
A.
Human Rights and Environment Linkages
1307
B.
Advantages to Using a Human Rights Approach
1309
Questions and Discussion
1310
C.
The Foundations of Human Rights Law
1312
Questions and Discussion
1315
D.
Human Rights Institutions
1315
1.
The United Nations Human Rights System
1315
Questions and Discussion
1320
2.
The Regional Human Rights Systems
1321
Questions and Discussion
1323
II.
Human Rights That Promote Environmental Protection
1323
A.
Substantive Rights
1324
1.
Right to a Healthy Environment
1324
Questions and Discussion
1326
2.
The Right to Life
1327
Questions and Discussion
1328
3.
The Right to Privacy
1331
Questions and Discussion
1333
4.
The Right to Use and Enjoy Property
1333
Questions and Discussion
1335
B.
Procedural Rights
1336
Questions and Discussion
1340
III.
Current and Cross-Cutting Issues
1343
A.
Human Rights and Climate Change
1343
Questions and Discussion
1351
B.
Indigenous Peoples' Rights and the Environment
1355
Questions and Discussion
1359
C.
The U.S. Alien Tort Claims Act: Enforcing International Law in U.S. Courts
1362
Questions and Discussion
1368
D.
Human Rights Obligations of Transnational Corporations
1374
Questions and Discussion
1376
ch. Nineteen
International Corporate Standards
1379
I.
Transnational Corporations and the Global Economy
1379
Questions and Discussion
1385
II.
Corporate Social Responsibility
1386
A.
The Rise of CSR
1386
Questions and Discussion
1388
B.
Corporate Codes of Conduct
1390
1.
The UN Code of Conduct and OECD Guidelines
1390
2.
The CERES Principles
1393
3.
International Chamber of Commerce's Business Charter for Sustainable Development
1396
4.
The Global Compact
1398
5.
Sector-Specific Standards
1399
Questions and Discussion
1399
III.
Environmental Management Systems
1400
A.
EMAS
1400
B.
ISO 14000
1401
Questions and Discussion
1403
IV.
Environmental Conditions on International Project Finance
1405
A.
The IFC's Environmental Standards
1405
Questions and Discussion
1409
B.
Environmental Standards at Export Credit Agencies (ECAs)
1411
Questions and Discussion
1412
C.
The Equator Principles and Private Commercial Banks -
1413
Questions and Discussion
1414
ch. Twenty
Extraterritorial Application of U.S. Environmental Law
1416
I.
Introduction
1416
II.
Authority to Regulate Extraterritorially
1418
III.
The Extraterritorial Reach of U.S. Statutes
1419
Questions and Discussion
1421
IV.
Extraterritorial Application of U.S. Environmental Statutes
1422
A.
Pollution Laws
1422
1.
CERCLA
1422
2.
RCRA
1425
B.
Environmental Assessments
1426
1.
Executive Order 12114
1430
2.
Executive Order 13141
1432
C.
Wildlife Conservation
1432
1.
Endangered Species Act
1432
2.
Marine Mammal Protection Act
1433
Questions and Discussion
1435
V.
Trade and Investment
1437
Questions and Discussion
1438
VI.
Foreign Claims in Domestic Courts
1440
A.
In Personam Jurisdiction
1440
B.
Standing
1441
C.
Forum Non Conveniens
1442
1.
The Bhopal Cases
1444
2.
Dow Chemical v. Alfaro
1446
Questions and Discussion
1447
Index
1453