State-religion relationships and human rights law : towards a right to religiously neutral governance / by Jeroen Temperman.
2010
K3280 .T46 2010 (Map It)
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Details
Author
Title
State-religion relationships and human rights law : towards a right to religiously neutral governance / by Jeroen Temperman.
Published
Leiden ; Boston, Mass. : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2010.
Call Number
K3280 .T46 2010
ISBN
9789004181489 (hardbound)
9004181482 (hardbound)
9004181482 (hardbound)
Description
lviii, 382 pages ; 25 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)500820583
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references (pages [351]-358) and index.
Record Appears in
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
xix
Table of International Instruments
xxi
Table of Domestic Legislation
xxv
Table of International Cases
xlix
Table of Domestic Cases
liii
Abbreviations
lv
Preface
lvii
1.
Introduction
1
1.1.
The Relevance of State-Religion Identification under International Human Rights Law
1
1.2.
Objectives, Methodology & Outline
4
pt. I
STATE-RELIGION IDENTIFICATION: A COMPARATIVE LEGAL ANALYSIS
2.
Religious States, State Religions & State Churches
11
2.1.
Introduction
11
2.2.
Religious States
12
2.2.1.
Christian States
13
i.
History: the Imperium Christianum
13
ii.
Present
17
2.2.2.
Islamic States
19
i.
History of Pre-modern Islamic Imperialism
19
ii.
Present
21
2.2.3.
A Jewish State?
25
2.2.4.
The Secularization of the Last Hindu State
29
i.
History
29
ii.
Present
30
2.2.5.
(Mono)theist States
30
2.3.
State Religions & State Churches
31
2.3.1.
State Religions
32
i.
Christian State Religions
33
Roman Catholicism
33
Lutheranism
36
Eastern Orthodoxy
36
ii.
Islam as State Religion
37
iii.
Buddhism as State Religion
39
History
39
Present
41
iv.
Historical State Religions
41
2.3.2.
State Churches and National Churches
44
i.
Roman Catholic Church
44
ii.
Evangelical Lutheran Church
45
iii.
Armenian Apostolic Holy Church
46
2.3.3.
Regional Establishment
47
i.
The Anglican Church of England and the Presbyterian Church of Scotland
47
ii.
Regional Endorsement: the Swiss Approach
48
iii.
Other Examples
48
2.4.
Implications
48
2.4.1.
Constitutional Religion-Law Nexus
49
i.
No Law Contrary to Islam
50
ii.
Religion as Sole or Principal Source for Legislation
52
iii.
Religion as a Source for Legislation
54
2.4.2.
Clustering Profane and Sacred Authority
55
2.4.3.
Reserving Political Seats for Members of the State Religion
59
2.4.4.
Royal Protection of the State Religion
60
2.4.5.
Religious Nature of the State as an Irrevocable Status
61
i.
State Religion as an Irrevocable Status
62
ii.
Exception: State Religion as Explicitly Changeable Status
63
2.5.
Concluding Remarks
63
3.
State Support & State Acknowledgement of Religion
65
3.1.
Introduction
65
3.2.
State Support
65
3.2.1.
State-Supported Buddhism
66
3.2.2.
State-Supported Christianity (Unspecified)
67
3.2.3.
State-Supported Roman Catholicism
69
3.2.4.
State-Supported for the Greek Orthodox Church of Cyprus and Vakf
70
3.2.5.
State-Supported Orthodox Church
71
3.2.6.
State-Supported Islam
72
3.3.
State Acknowledgement
73
3.3.1.
Historical Acknowledgement
73
i.
Acknowledgement of Christianity (Unspecified)
73
ii.
Acknowledgement of Eastern Orthodoxy
74
iii.
Catholic Church in Timor-Leste and Paraguay
75
3.3.2.
Acknowledgement of a Predominant Religion
76
3.3.3.
Acknowledgement of Religious Phenomena
77
i.
Constitutional Acknowledgement of God
77
ii.
Constitutional Acknowledgement of Other Religious Notions
80
Specific Characteristics of God
80
Creationism
80
Omnipotence
81
Omniscience
81
Omnipresence
81
Supremacy
81
Immortality
82
Interventionism
82
Trinitarianism
82
Positive Characteristics
83
Monotheism
83
Religious Founders
83
Founding Sources
84
Notions of Sanctity
85
Other Metaphysical Notions
86
iii.
State Symbolism & Religion
86
State Mottos
87
Flags
88
3.4.
Concluding Remarks
90
4.
Accommodation of Religions & Non-Identification
93
4.1.
Introduction
93
4.2.
Accommodation of Religion: Unspecified Support vs. Support for Various Religions
93
4.2.1.
Direct Political Representation of Religions
94
4.2.2.
Advisory Role of Religions
96
4.2.3.
Financial State Support for Religions
96
4.2.4.
Other Types of Cooperation between the State and Various Religions
99
4.3.
Non-Identification
103
4.4.
Concluding Remarks
109
5.
Secularism & Separation of State and Religion
111
5.1.
Introduction
111
5.2.
Secular States
111
5.2.1.
Declared Secular States
113
5.2.2.
State Neutrality
114
5.3.
Non-establishment Clause
115
5.3.1.
American Non-establishmentarianism
116
5.3.2.
Other Non-establishment Clauses
118
5.4.
Separation of State and Religion
121
5.4.1.
Separation of State and Church
123
5.4.2.
Separation of State and Religion
123
5.4.3.
Regional Separation of State and Religion
124
5.5.
Implications
125
5.5.1.
Political Implications of Secularism/Separationism
125
5.5.2.
Structural Implications of Separation
127
i.
Separation as Mutual Independence
128
ii.
Separation as Governmental Independence
130
iii.
Separation as Church or Religious Autonomy
131
5.5.3.
Secularity/Separation as an Irrevocable Characteristic
132
5.5.4.
Contradictory State Practice
133
i.
Secularism & Religious Affirmations
133
ii.
Separationism & Religious Affirmations
134
5.6.
Concluding Remarks
136
6.
Secular State Ideologies & Negative Identification
139
6.1.
Introduction
139
6.2.
Secular State Ideologies
140
6.3.
Negative Identification
143
6.4.
Concluding Remarks
145
pt. II
STATE-RELIGION IDENTIFICATION: A HUMAN RIGHTS ANALYSIS
7.
Preliminary Legal Questions Concerning Establishment of Religion and State Atheism
149
7.1.
Introduction
149
7.2.
Establishment of Religion under International Human Rights Law
149
7.2.1.
Travaux Preparatoires on Establishment of Religion
154
7.2.2.
Establishment, Religious Freedom and the Legal Doctrine
157
7.2.3.
Establishment of Religion & Non-Discrimination
160
7.3.
Official Anti-Religionism as Ipso Facto Human Rights Violation
165
7.4.
Conclusion
166
8.
Religious Laws & the State
171
8.1.
Introduction
171
8.2.
State Interference with Enforcement of Religious Laws: Substantive Concerns
172
8.2.1.
Religious Laws & Gender Inequality
173
i.
Shari'a & Gender Inequality
174
Inequality in Marriage Options and During Marriage
176
Inequality at the Dissolution of Marriage
178
Inequality in Inheritance
179
Inequality of the Value of Testimony
179
Modesty Rules
179
ii.
Halakhah & Gender Inequality
180
iii.
Cultural Traditions & Violations of Women's Rights
182
8.2.2.
Apostasy
183
8.2.3.
Inferior Status of Religious Minorities
186
8.3.
Systemic Human Rights Concerns Regarding State Intervention in the Observance of Religious Laws
189
8.3.1.
Freedom from Religion
190
8.3.2.
Equality before the Law & Equal Protection of the Law
193
8.3.3.
Transparency, Legal Certainty and Checks & Balances
196
8.4.
Religious Reservations to Norms of International Human Rights Law
197
8.5.
Conclusion
200
9.
State Entanglement with Religion & the Equal Religious Rights of Others, Freedom of Expression, Freedom of Association and Equal Employment Opportunities
203
9.1.
Introduction
203
9.2.
Establishment of Religion & the Equal Religious Rights of Members of Other Religions
204
9.2.1.
Establishment of Religion & Limited Domestic Conceptions of the Right to Freedom of Religion and Belief
204
i.
Freedom of Religion or Belief Not Constitutionally Protected
206
ii.
Freedom of Religion or Belief as a Non-Universal Right
206
iii.
̀Freedom of Worship'
207
iv.
Freedom to Manifest Only: No ̀Freedom to Have or Adopt'
209
v.
Failure to Recognize the Right to Conscientious Objections
210
Right to Conscientious Objection Not Guaranteed
212
Conscientious Objection Applied in a Discriminatory Manner
213
Discriminatory Nature or Length of the Alternative Service
214
Conscientious Objection only Prior to Joining the Army
215
vi.
̀Religion' as Ground for Limitation
215
vii.
Proselytism Bans
216
viii.
Legal Measures Encroaching on the Privacy of Religious Beliefs
220
ix.
Illegitimate Secular Limits on Freedom on Religion or Belief
222
9.2.2.
Establishment of Religion & Unequal Treatment of Other Religions
223
i.
Discrimination on the Basis of Religion Not Prohibited
224
ii.
Different Treatment of Different Religions
224
Financial Benefits
225
̀Religion Tax'
229
Historical Prerogatives of Predominant Religions
230
Religious Holidays & Days of Rest
231
9.3.
Religion & Freedom of Expression
236
9.3.1.
Domestic Counter-Blasphemy and Counter-Defamation Measures
238
9.3.2.
The Interplay between Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Religion under International Human Rights law
243
9.3.3.
The Emerging Counter-Defamation Discourse
247
9.4.
Religion & Freedom of Association
252
9.4.1.
Numerical Requirements
255
9.4.2.
Presence Requirements
258
9.4.3.
Other Illegitimate Registration Requirements
259
9.5.
Religion & Employment
262
9.5.1.
Distinctive Treatment on Grounds of Religion or Belief
265
i.
Genuine Occupational Requirements
265
ii.
Religious Ethos Exception
268
9.5.2.
Discrimination on Other Grounds for Religious Reasons
271
9.6.
Conclusion
272
10.
Religion & Education
275
10.1.
Introduction
275
10.2.
Access to Appropriate Education
276
10.2.1.
Prohibition of Compulsory Religious Upbringing
276
10.2.2.
Prohibition of Compulsory Religious Education
277
10.2.3.
Access to Non-Denominational Education
280
10.2.4.
Further Access Issues: State Schools & Secular Dress Codes
283
10.2.5.
The Problem with Opt-Out Provisions
288
10.2.6.
No State Duty to Provide Religious Education
291
10.2.7.
Neutral and Objective Public School Education About Religions
294
10.3.
Teachers, Education & Human Rights Law
295
10.3.1.
Employing Teachers
295
i.
Public Schools: No Religious Discrimination
296
ii.
Denominational Schools: Genuine Occupational Requirement Exemptions
297
10.3.2.
Position and Role of Teachers
298
i.
Public School Teachers & Religion
298
ii.
Public Schools & Religious Dress
299
iii.
Denominational School Teachers
302
10.4.
Conclusion: An Emerging State Duty to Provide Neutral Education about Religions?
302
11.
Religion & Politics
307
11.1.
Introduction
307
11.2.
Ensuring Equal Inclusion through the Political Constellation of the State
308
11.2.1.
No Political Privileges for Religions or Beliefs
308
i.
Equal Right to Vote
308
ii.
Prohibition of Predetermining a Religion-Law Nexus
309
iii.
Prohibition of Reserving Political Seats for the Dominant Religion
312
iv.
Prohibition of Posing Religious Qualifications for Holding Public Office
314
Executive
314
Legislature
315
Judiciary
316
v.
Prohibition of Religious Oaths of Office
316
11.2.2.
Avoiding Rigid Measures: No Total Elimination of Religion From the Public Arena
320
i.
A Case Against Bans on Religious Political Parties
320
Absolute Prohibitions
322
Prohibition of Religious Affiliation by Name, Emblem or Motto
323
Non-Absolute Bans
324
Membership of Political Parties
325
ii.
Incompatibility Rules
327
iii.
Disfranchisement of Religious Officials
329
iv.
Ban on Political Gatherings at Houses of Worship
329
11.3.
Conclusion: Recommended Safeguards
329
11.3.1.
The Case for State Neutrality & Non-Establishmentarianism
332
11.3.2.
Supplementary Safeguard: State Duty to Act Against Parties that Seek to Dismantle the Democratic Nature of the State
335
pt. III
CONCLUSION: THE EMERGING RIGHT TO RELIGIOUSLY NEUTRAL GOVERNANCE
12.
Towards Religiously Neutral Governance
339
Bibliography
351
Index
359