Export restrictions on critical minerals and metals : testing the adequacy of WTO disciplines / Ilaria Espa.
2015
K3952.M56 E87 2015 (Map It)
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Details
Author
Title
Export restrictions on critical minerals and metals : testing the adequacy of WTO disciplines / Ilaria Espa.
Published
Cambridge, United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press, 2015.
Call Number
K3952.M56 E87 2015
ISBN
9781107085961 (hardback)
1107085969 (hardback)
1107085969 (hardback)
Description
xxiii, 379 pages ; 24 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)912045377
Summary
"Today international commodity markets are being affected by the longest and most pervasive 'wave' of export restrictions on raw materials since the Second World War. The origin of this phenomenon can be traced back to the 2000s commodities boom , and its endurance to an exceptional mix of concurring factors affecting patterns of world supply and demand for raw materials. The explosion of attention towards export restraints directly stems from the unique scope and length of the present wave"-- Provided by publisher.
Note
Based on author's thesis (doctoral - Università Commerciale Luigi Bocconi, Milan, 2013) issued under title: Emerging trends in critical raw materials trade and WTO regulation of export restrictions.
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references (pages 335-355) and index.
Record Appears in
Table of Contents
Foreword / Giorgio Sacerdoti
xiii
Acknowledgements
xv
List of abbreviations
xvii
WTO reports
xix
GATT panel reports
xxiii
Introduction
1
1.1.
Historical trends in the use of export restrictions
1
1.2.
The panoply of export restrictions on primary commodities in recent times
8
1.2.1.
Agricultural export restrictions and food security concerns
11
1.2.2.
Export restrictions on energy commodities between new and old concerns
22
1.2.3.
Export restrictions on raw materials of mineral origin and the revival of industrial policies
28
1.3.
`Critical' minerals and metals and the debate over the use of export restrictions
31
1.4.
Goals, method and structure of this study
34
pt. I
Minerals and metals critical to the world economy and the recent proliferation of export restrictions
39
1.
Evolving world trade patterns in critical minerals and metals
41
1.1.
Introduction
41
1.2.
Defining mineral raw materials
41
1.2.1.
A definition of raw materials
41
1.2.2.
Raw materials of mineral origin
44
1.2.3.
A classification of minerals and metals
46
1.3.
Identifying `critical' minerals and metals
48
1.3.1.
Demand and supply determinants for mineral raw materials
48
1.3.2.
Specific factors of mineral criticality
51
1.3.3.
A list of critical minerals and metals
54
1.4.
Distinctive features of critical minerals and metals
56
1.5.
Main patterns of international trade in critical minerals and metals
63
1.6.
Conclusions
65
2.
The landscape of export restrictions on critical minerals and metals
67
2.1.
Introduction
67
2.2.
A definition of export restrictions
67
2.3.
The explosion of attention towards export restrictions
69
2.4.
Recent trends in the use of export taxes
72
2.4.1.
A definition of export taxes or duties
72
2.4.2.
The proliferation of export duties or taxes
74
2.4.3.
Export duties or taxes applied to critical mineral and metals
77
2.4.4.
Other price or tax measures imposed on exportation
84
2.5.
Recent trends in the use of QRs on exports
86
2.5.1.
Export prohibitions or bans
86
2.5.2.
Export quotas
89
2.5.3.
Export licensing schemes or requirements
93
2.5.4.
Minimum export prices and other types of export restrictions
96
2.6.
Conclusions
98
3.
Economic effects and policy goals of mineral export restraints
101
3.1.
Introduction
101
3.2.
The economic effects of export restrictions
102
3.2.1.
Effects predicted by theoretical economic models
103
3.2.2.
Changes in welfare and redistributional effects linked to export restrictions
105
3.2.3.
Sector-specific factors influencing the effects of export restrictions on minerals and metals
108
3.3.
Main policy goals of export restrictions in the minerals and metals sector
111
3.3.1.
Export restrictions as developmental tools
111
3.3.2.
Export restrictions as environmental tools
116
3.3.3.
Other policy objectives associated with export restrictions
118
3.4.
Empirical evidence on the effects of export restrictions on critical minerals and metals
119
3.5.
Conclusions
122
pt. II
Existing WTO disciplines on export restrictions
125
4.
WTO disciplines on export duties
127
4.1.
Introduction
127
4.2.
Asymmetry in the WTO treatment of import and export tariffs: origins and rationale
128
4.3.
Export duties or taxes in the GATT
131
4.3.1.
Enforceability of export duty concessions included in GATT schedules
131
4.3.2.
Differences in the treatment of import and export duty concessions in the GATT
135
4.3.3.
Admissibility of export duties under Article XI: 1 GATT
140
4.3.4.
Other GATT provisions applicable to export duties
143
4.4.
Export duty commitments in post-1994 accession protocols: the emergence of WTO-plus obligations
145
4.4.1.
An overview of export duty commitments assumed by newly acceded WTO Members
147
4.4.2.
Limited flexibility of WTO-plus obligations on export duties
161
4.5.
Transparency and notification requirements applicable to export duties
163
4.6.
Conclusions
165
5.
WTO disciplines on export quantitative restrictions
169
5.1.
Introduction
169
5.2.
GATT rules on export quantitative restrictions
169
5.2.1.
The general elimination obligation under Article XI: 1 GATT
169
5.2.2.
Other GATT provisions relevant to quantitative restrictions on exports
175
5.3.
GATT exceptions applicable to quantitative restrictions on exports
179
5.3.1.
The critical shortage of supply clause under Article XI:2(a) GATT
180
5.3.2.
Limited applicability of other Article XI-specific exceptions
184
5.3.3.
Non-availability of other GATT exceptions applicable to quantitative restrictions
185
5.4.
Transparency and notification requirements applicable to export quantitative restrictions
188
5.5.
Conclusions
190
6.
GATT general exceptions relevant and applicable to WTO-inconsistent export restrictions
193
6.1.
Introduction
193
6.2.
Availability of Article XX GATT to WTO-plus obligations on export duties assumed under post-1994 accession protocols
194
6.2.1.
The existence of an `objective link' as a precondition for the applicability of Article XX GATT to post-1994 accession protocol provisions
194
6.2.2.
Implications for WTO Members assuming specific obligations on export duties under post-1994 accession protocols
202
6.2.3.
Systemic imbalances produced by the Appellate Body's approach in light of the fragmentation of WTO disciplines on export duties
204
6.3.
The relevance of Article XX GATT to justify export restrictions in light of recent WTO case law
208
6.3.1.
Article XX(b) GATT
209
6.3.2.
Article XX(g) GATT
214
6.3.3.
Industrial policy exceptions under Article XX GATT
221
6.3.4.
The chapeau of Article XX GATT
223
6.4.
Conclusions
225
pt. III
Regulatory prospects
229
7.
Understanding the multifaceted discourse on export restrictions in the WTO: a brief conceptual framework
231
7.1.
Introduction
231
7.2.
Access to supplies vs. development needs in the debate over export restrictions in the GATT era
232
7.3.
Arguments in favour of export restrictions as developmental tools
234
7.3.1.
The regained centrality of the principle of sovereignty over natural resources
235
7.3.2.
Export restrictions as safeguard tools
241
7.3.3.
Export restrictions as instruments to relieve commodity dependence and vulnerability to price volatility
243
7.4.
Arguments against export restrictions as beggar-thy-neighbour instruments
245
7.4.1.
Disruptions in global value chains caused by export restrictions
245
7.4.2.
Subsidy-equivalent effects of export restrictions
247
7.4.3.
Rent-seeking behaviours induced by export restrictions and absence of competition rules in the WTO
252
7.5.
Conclusions
254
8.
Export restrictions in the Doha Round negotiations
257
8.1.
Introduction
257
8.2.
The Doha mandate on export restrictions
257
8.3.
The EU Proposals on export taxes
258
8.3.1.
The proposal for a WTO Agreement on Export Taxes
258
8.3.2.
The EU Revised Submission on Export Taxes
262
8.4.
The proposed Protocol on Transparency in Export Licensing to the GATT
266
8.5.
Conclusions
269
9.
The way forward
273
9.1.
Introduction
273
9.2.
Building blocks
274
9.2.1.
Enhanced transparency in the use of export restrictions
274
9.2.2.
Negotiation of export duty concessions in WTO Members' GATT schedules
277
9.2.3.
Expansion of GATT flexibilities
282
9.2.4.
Envisaging an export safeguard mechanism
284
9.3.
Implementing options
286
9.3.1.
A deal on transparency
286
9.3.2.
Launching negotiations on export duty concessions: options and modalities
287
9.3.3.
A new WTO Agreement on Export Taxes
289
9.4.
Conclusions
290
Appendix 1
Export taxes applied to critical minerals and metals (2008--2014)
293
Appendix 2
Export licensing schemes applied to critical minerals and metals (2008--2014)
329
Bibliography
335
Index
357