Oil exploitation and human rights violations in Nigeria's oil producing communities / Olubayo Oluduro.
2014
KTA2095 .O45 2014 (Map It)
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Details
Author
Title
Oil exploitation and human rights violations in Nigeria's oil producing communities / Olubayo Oluduro.
Published
Cambridge, United Kingdom : Intersentia, [2014]
Distributed
Plymouth, United Kingdom : NBN International ; Portland, OR : International Specialized Book Services
Copyright
©2014
Call Number
KTA2095 .O45 2014
Former Call Number
Nig 908 Ol9 2014
ISBN
9781780681313 (paperback)
1780681313 (paperback)
1780681313 (paperback)
Description
xxxi, 561 pages ; 24 cm
System Control No.
(OCoLC)839316879
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references (pages 493-560).
Record Appears in
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
vii
Selected Abbreviations
xvii
Table of Cases
xxiii
List of Selected Interviewees
xxxi
Introduction
1
Abstract
1
Background to the Study
2
Importance and Relevance of the Research
4
Aims and Objectives of the Study
5
Research Questions
5
Methodology
6
Scope and Structure of the Study
9
ch. One
History and Development of Oil Exploitation in Nigeria
13
1.1.
The Niger Delta: Its Geography, People and Culture
13
1.1.1.
Niger Delta People and Population
18
1.1.2.
Culture
20
1.1.3.
Occupations
21
1.1.3.1.
Primary Occupations
21
1.1.3.2.
Secondary Occupations
22
1.1.4.
Trade and Commerce
22
1.1.5.
Ecology
23
1.2.
A Brief History of Nigerian Oil and Gas
25
1.3.
Multinational Oil Companies Operating in the Niger Delta Region
30
1.3.1.
Shell Petroleum Development Company
31
1.3.2.
Exxon/Mobil
32
1.3.3.
Chevron Nigeria Limited
33
1.3.4.
Texaco Overseas (Nigeria) Petroleum Company Unlimited
34
1.3.5.
Total Fina Elf
35
1.3.6.
Nigerian Agip Oil Company Limited
35
1.4.
Indigenous Oil and Gas Companies
36
1.5.
The Evolution of State Participation in the Oil Industry
38
1.6.
Conclusion
58
ch. Two
Niger Delta People under International Law and the Problems of Resource Control
61
2.1.
Introduction
61
2.2.
Status of the Niger Delta People in the Nigerian State
61
2.2.1.
Definition of Minorities
62
2.2.2.
Definition of Indigenous Peoples
65
2.2.3.
Assessment of the Status of the Niger Delta People
71
2.3.
Ownership of Oil in Nigeria
76
2.4.
Land Ownership in Nigeria and the Land Use Act (LUA)
80
2.4.1.
The Land Use Act and the Niger Delta People
83
2.5.
Revenue Allocation and Resource Control
89
2.5.1.
Revenue-Sharing in Historical Perspective
91
2.5.2.
Distribution of Revenue Resources Under the 1999 Constitution
94
2.6.
Meaning and Nature of Resource Control
98
2.6.1.
Agitation for Resource Control in Nigeria
100
2.6.2.
A Critical Appraisal of the Legal Regime of Full Resource Control in Nigeria
103
2.6.3.
Comparative Analysis of Resource Control
106
2.6.4.
Is Resource Control a Viable Option?
109
2.7.
Ownership of Indigenous Land and Natural Resources within the Context of International Law
112
2.7.1.
International Labour Organisation (ILO) Conventions (Nos. 107 and 169)
112
2.7.2.
African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and Indigenous Rights
114
2.7.3.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
116
2.7.4.
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
117
2.7.5.
International Financial Institutions and Indigenous Peoples
120
2.7.6.
Indigenous Peoples' Rights in International Law and Practices of States
123
2.8.
Conclusion
132
ch. Three
Legal and Institutional Framework for Oil Operations in Nigeria and the State Responses to Environmental Insecurity in the Niger Delta
133
3.1.
Introduction
133
3.2.
Legal Framework of Nigerian Laws on Oil and the Environment
134
3.2.1.
Criminal Code
134
3.2.2.
Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provisions etc) Act 1988
135
3.2.3.
Oil in Navigable Waters Act
136
3.2.4.
Oil Pipelines Act
137
3.2.5.
Associated Gas Re-Injection Act and the Regulations
139
3.2.6.
Petroleum Act 1969 and the Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulations
142
3.2.7.
National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA) Act
144
3.2.8.
National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (Establishment) Act 2006
147
3.2.9.
Environmental Impact Assessment Decree 1992
154
3.2.10.
Petroleum Industry Bill
160
3.2.11.
Biodiversity Laws
162
3.3.
Common Law
166
3.4.
Transnational Corporations and International Environmental Standards in the Oil Industry
168
3.5.
Challenges to Effective Regulation of the Environmental Practices of Transnational Oil Corporations in Nigeria
178
3.6.
Institutional Frameworks for Niger Delta Development
184
3.6.1.
The Niger Delta Development Board (NDDB)
187
3.6.2.
Niger Delta Basin Development Authority (NDBDA)
187
3.6.3.
Oil Mineral Producing Areas Development Commission (OMPADEC)
188
3.6.4.
Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC)
191
3.6.5.
The Development of Niger Delta Regional Development Master Plan
198
3.6.6.
Consolidated Council on Social and Economic Development of Coastal States of the Niger Delta (COSEND)
200
3.6.7.
Niger Delta Peace and Conflict Resolution Committee
201
3.6.8.
Technical Committee on the Niger Delta
201
3.6.9.
Ministry of Niger Delta
202
3.6.10.
Presidential Panel on Amnesty and Disarmament of Militants in the Niger Delta
202
3.7.
How effective are the Niger Delta Development Initiatives in Addressing the Environmental and Human Rights Challenges?
208
3.8.
Conclusion
210
ch. Four
Niger Delta, Environmental Degradation and Human Rights
213
4.1.
Introduction
213
4.2.
The Relationship between Environmental Degradation and Human Rights
214
4.2.1.
Regional Instruments
220
4.3.
Constitutional Recognition of Environmental Rights in Nigeria
222
4.4.
Categories of Human Rights Vulnerable to the Activities of Oil Multinational Companies
231
4.4.1.
Right to Life
232
4.4.2.
The Right to Health
240
4.4.3.
The Right to Food
244
4.4.4.
The Right to Water
247
4.4.5.
Right to Culture
251
4.4.6.
Right to Property and to Housing
253
4.4.7.
Right to Respect for One's Private Life and Home
256
4.4.8.
Right to Dignity of the Human Person
258
4.4.9.
The Right to Information
261
4.4.10.
The Right to Participation
262
4.5.
State Responsibilities for Acts of Non-State Actors
265
4.5.1.
Host State Control
270
4.5.2.
Home State Control
272
4.6.
The Responsibility of Non-State Actors
275
4.7.
Some Voluntary Codes of Conduct
285
4.7.1.
ILO Tripartite Declaration of Principles
286
4.7.2.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises
287
4.7.3.
UN Global Compact
290
4.7.4.
Norms on Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights
292
4.7.4.1.
Ruggie's Position
296
4.7.5.
The Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights (VPs)
301
4.8.
The Place of Voluntary Codes of Conduct in Regulating the Activities of MNCs
304
4.9.
Need for a Legally Binding Instrument for Corporate Environmental Accountability
309
4.10.
U.S. Transnational Human Rights Litigation
311
4.10.1.
ATCA and the Protection of Environment
311
4.10.2.
Elements Required for an Environmental Claim under ATCA
313
4.10.3.
ATCA Environmental Jurisprudence
314
4.10.3.1.
Amlon Metals Inc. v. FMC Corp.
314
4.10.3.2.
Jota v. Texaco, Inc. and Aguinda v. Texaco, Inc.
315
4.10.3.3.
Sarei v. Rio Tinto PLC
316
4.10.3.4.
Beanal v. Freeport-McMoran
318
4.10.3.5.
Flores v. Southern Peru Copper
320
4.10.4.
Pursuing Environmental Claims under ATCA: the Niger Delta People
321
4.10.4.1.
Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum
321
4.10.4.2.
Bowoto v. Chevron Texaco
324
4.10.4.3.
Wiwa et al v. Royal Dutch Petroleum et al
326
4.10.5.
Various Procedural Hurdles in ATCA Litigation
328
4.10.6.
Significance of ATCA in Environmental and Human Rights Claims to the Niger Delta People
330
4.11.
Action Against MNCs in Other Jurisdictions
336
4.12.
Human Rights Approach to Environmental Protection
343
4.13.
Attempts by Some Jurisdictions to Enact Laws to Regulate MNCs
347
4.14.
Conclusion
349
ch. Five
Oil and Corruption in the Niger Delta, Nigeria: the Human Rights Implications
351
5.1.
Introduction
351
5.2.
Meaning of Corruption
351
5.3.
Impact of Corruption in the Oil Sector on Human Rights in Nigeria
355
5.4.
Role of the International Community in Combating Corruption in Nigeria
361
5.5.
Nigeria's Efforts at Fighting Corruption
363
5.5.1.
The Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) and the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC)
363
5.5.2.
Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI)
365
5.5.3.
The United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC)
367
5.5.4.
The African Union (AU) Anti-Corruption Convention
368
5.6.
Criticisms of EITI and the Prospects of Combating Corruption in Nigeria
370
5.7.
Conclusion
381
ch. Six
Strengthening the National and Regional Institutions to Address Human Rights Concerns in the Niger Delta Region
383
6.1.
Introduction
383
6.1.
Access to Justice as a Panacea to the Niger Delta Crisis
384
6.1.1.
Access to Judicial Redress for Environmental Grievances
384
6.1.2.
Right to Information
385
6.1.3.
Participation in Decision-Making
388
6.1.3.1.
Public Participation, Recognition and Environmental Justice in the Niger Delta
389
6.1.3.2.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in the Niger Delta Region
392
6.1.3.3.
Constraints to Public Participation
394
6.1.3.4.
Justifying the Niger Delta Communities Involvement in Environmental Matters
395
6.2.
Strengthening Domestic Environmental Adjudication in Nigeria
397
6.2.1.
Reflections on Environmental Human Rights Litigation Originating from the Niger Delta
399
6.2.2.
Using the Human Rights Approach to Solving Oil-Related Litigation in the Niger Delta
403
6.2.2.1.
Liberal and Creative Interpretation by Courts
403
6.2.2.2.
Implementation of International Environmental Law Treaties
408
6.2.2.3.
Accessibility of Courts to the People
411
6.2.2.4.
Legal Aid and Victims of Environmental Harm
413
6.2.2.5.
Addressing the Delay in Justice System
414
6.2.2.6.
Relaxing the Locus Standi Rule (standing to sue)
414
6.2.2.7.
Recognition of Class Action Suits
417
6.2.2.8.
Establishment of Special National Environmental Courts
418
6.2.2.9.
Building a Strong and Virile Judiciary
419
6.3.
The National Human Rights Commission and the Promotion of Human Rights in the Niger Delta
424
6.3.1.
Introduction
424
6.3.2.
Challenges Facing the NHRC from Discharging Its Human Rights Obligations
426
6.3.3.
NHRC: Protecting the Human Rights of the Niger Delta People
429
6.3.3.1.
Accessibility
429
6.3.3.2.
Monitoring Role
430
6.3.3.3.
Independence
430
6.3.3.4.
Appropriate Policy
433
6.3.3.5.
Enforcement of NHRC Recommendations through the Court
434
6.3.3.6.
Advocacy Role
434
6.3.3.7.
Effective Partnership
435
6.4.
The Role of NGOs in the Protection of the Rights of the Niger Delta People
436
6.4.1.
Introduction
436
6.4.2.
Regulating the Oil MNCs in the Niger Delta: the Roles of the NGOs
438
6.4.2.1.
NGOs as Watchdog and Whistle-Blower
438
6.4.2.2.
NGOs as Experts and Lobbyists
439
6.4.2.3.
Public Awareness of Environmental Issues
440
6.4.2.4.
NGOs as Enforcers
441
6.4.3.
Strengthening the Environmental and Human Rights NGOs for Effective Performance
444
6.5.
The African Commission, African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights, African Court of Justice and the Environment: the Case of the Niger Delta People in Nigeria
446
6.5.1.
Introduction
446
6.5.2.
Status of the African Charter Act vis-a-vis the Nigerian Constitution
448
6.5.3.
Jurisprudence of the African Commission on Socio-Economic Rights and Environment
449
6.5.4.
Application of the Jurisprudence of African Commission on Socio-Economic Rights and Environment by Nigerian Courts
454
6.5.5.
Benefits of the Application of the African Commission Jurisprudence by Nigerian Courts
456
6.5.6.
The African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights
457
6.5.7.
The African Court of Justice and Human Rights
463
6.6.
Conclusion
467
ch. Seven
General Conclusions
469
7.1.
Overview
469
7.2.
Directions for Future Research
487
7.3.
Implications of the Research for Legislation, Policy and Practice
488
7.4.
Limitations of the Research
489
7.5.
Concluding Remarks
490
Selected Bibliography
493
Appendix
561