Human rights and law enforcement at sea : arrest, detention and transfer of piracy suspects / by Anna Petrig.
2014
KZ7212 .P48 2014 (Map It)
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Details
Author
Title
Human rights and law enforcement at sea : arrest, detention and transfer of piracy suspects / by Anna Petrig.
Published
Leiden : Brill Nijhoff, [2014]
Copyright
©2014
Call Number
KZ7212 .P48 2014
ISBN
9789004269965 (hd.bd.)
9004269967 (hd.bd.)
9789004269972 (online)
9004269967 (hd.bd.)
9789004269972 (online)
Description
xxi, 500 pages ; 25 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)895661938
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references (pages [443]-460) and index.
Record Appears in
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
xvii
List of Abbreviations
xix
Introduction
1
I.
Hypothesis: Piracy Suspects Are Holders of International Individual Rights
1
II.
Scope of the Study: Disposition in Light of International Individual Rights
6
A.
The Subject Matter Analysed
6
B.
The Legal Yardstick Applied
7
III.
Case Studies: Methodology Applied
8
pt. 1
Disposition of Piracy Cases: The Context
13
I.
The Phenomenon: Somali-Based Piracy
13
II.
A Janus-faced Response: Internationalized Policing and Domestic Prosecution
20
A.
The Resolved Response: Internationalized Policing
20
1.
A Comprehensive Policing Framework on the Normative Level
20
2.
A Truly International Response on the Operational Level
22
B.
The Muddled Response: Domestic Criminal Prosecution
24
1.
Criminal Prosecution of Piracy Suspects Remains on the Domestic Level
25
2.
Little Impact of the UNSCR on Domestic Criminal Law
28
III.
Building a Bridge: Interlocking Policing and Prosecution
32
A.
Discontinuity between Policing and Prosecution
32
B.
Political-Diplomatic Efforts to Further the Prosecution of Piracy Cases
35
C.
Enforcement of Sentences as a Growing Concern
39
IV.
Paving the Way for Prosecutions: Disposition of Piracy Cases
41
A.
Disposition Post-Seizure
41
1.
Extradition
41
2.
Deliveries under Article 8 SUA Convention
43
3.
Transfers
47
B.
Anticipated Disposition by Using Shipriders
48
V.
Conclusions on Disposition of Piracy Cases: The Context
51
pt. 2
Disposition of Piracy Cases: The Practice
53
I.
Disposition in an Interstate Setting: Denmark
53
A.
Counter-Piracy Missions
53
B.
Legal Framework
55
1.
Rules Criminalizing Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea
56
2.
Arrest, Detention and Investigation in the Counter-Piracy Context
57
3.
Exercise of Danish Criminal Jurisdiction over Piracy Suspects
60
4.
Transfer of Piracy Suspects
62
C.
Disposition Procedure
63
1.
Assessment by the Inter-Ministerial Coordination Organ
64
2.
Decision Whether to Exercise Danish Criminal Jurisdiction
66
3.
Decision Whether to Transfer to a Third State for Prosecution
67
a).
How a Transfer Decision Comes About
67
b).
Features of the Transfer Procedure
68
4.
Post-Transfer Phase
71
a).
Tracing and Monitoring
71
b).
Re-Transfer by the Receiving State
72
D.
Arrest and Detention during Disposition
73
1.
Detention Pending Jurisdictional Decision
73
a).
Arrest by Danish Military on Suspicion of Criminal Activity
73
b).
Normative Gaps
73
c).
Missing Procedural Safeguards
75
2.
Detention after a Positive Jurisdictional Decision
76
a).
Competent Bodies and Ordinarily Applicable Rules
76
b).
Procedural Safeguards
77
3.
Detention Once a Transfer Option Comes into Play
78
a).
Detention by Danish Military Forces Pending Transfer
78
b).
Normative Gap
79
c).
Missing Procedural Safeguards
80
E.
Conclusions on Disposition in an Interstate Setting: Denmark
80
II.
Disposition in a Multinational Context: EUNAVFOR
82
A.
Mission, Command Structure and Mandate
82
B.
Disposition Procedure
85
1.
Legal Framework
85
2.
Article 12 CJA: Possible Outcomes of Disposition
86
3.
Steps Following Interdiction of a Boat Suspected of Piracy
88
4.
Decision by Seizing State Whether to Prosecute Domestically
90
a).
Seizing State's Priority to Prosecute
90
b).
The Examples of Germany and Spain
90
c).
Transfer to the Seizing State for Prosecution
96
5.
Decision to Transfer to a Third State
96
a).
Focus on Transfer to Regional States
97
b).
Rules Governing the Decision to Transfer to Third State
98
c).
Transfer Agreements and Their Personal Scope of Application
99
d).
Consultations, Negotiations and Submission of Transfer Request
102
e).
Implementation of the Transfer Decision
104
f).
Conclusion
105
6.
Post-Transfer Phase
108
a).
Tracing and Monitoring Post-Transfer
108
aa).
Legal Framework
108
bb).
Beneficiaries of Monitoring Rights
110
b).
Re-transfers by Regional States
112
C.
Arrest and Detention during Disposition
113
1.
Interplay between OHQ and Seizing State in Case of Arrest
113
2.
EUNAVFOR Rules Governing Arrest and Detention
115
3.
National Approaches to Arrest and Detention of Piracy Suspects
118
a).
The Criminal Law Approach
119
b).
Piracy Suspects as "Extraordinary Suspects"
121
III.
Conclusions on Disposition of Piracy Cases: The Practice
126
pt. 3
Disposition of Piracy Cases: Applicable Legal Frameworks
131
I.
International Humanitarian Law
131
II.
International Refugee Law
133
III.
International Human Rights Law
139
A.
Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Law in a Maritime Environment
139
1.
ECHR
140
2.
ICCPR
142
3.
CAT
143
4.
CRC
144
5.
CFREU
145
B.
Exercise of Chapter VII-Based Enforcement Powers
146
C.
Attribution of Human Rights Violations
147
pt. 4
Arrest and Detention in Light of International Individual Rights
149
I.
Arrest and Detention of Piracy Suspects in Light of the Right to Liberty
150
A.
"Deprivation of Liberty" Is at Stake
153
1.
Arrest and Detention in the Sense of the Right to Liberty
153
2.
Moment at Which Piracy Suspects Are "Deprived of Their Liberty"
156
a).
Deprivation of Liberty under Article 5 ECHR
156
aa).
The Space Element
157
bb).
The Coercion Element
159
cc).
The Time Element
160
dd).
Conclusion
164
b).
Deprivation of Liberty under Article 9ICCPR
165
B.
Justificatory Grounds for Depriving Piracy Suspects of Their Liberty
167
1.
Justificatory Grounds of Article 5(1) ECHR
169
a).
Arrest and Detention on Suspicion of Criminal Activity
169
b).
Arrest and Detention of Minors
175
c).
Arrest and Detention with a View to Extradition or Deportation
177
aa).
Transfers Are Not "Deportations" in the Sense of Article 5(1)(f) ECHR
177
bb).
Transfers May Qualify as "Extradition" in the Sense of Article 5(1)(f) ECHR
181
cc).
The Meaning of "Action is Taken with a View to Extradition"
191
2.
Justificatory Ground for Deprivation of Liberty per Phase of Disposition
197
a).
Seizure and Initial Arrest of Piracy Suspects
197
b).
Detention Pending Decision Whether to Prosecute in Seizing State
200
c).
Detention Once the Seizing State Decides Not To Prosecute
202
d).
Detention during Transfer Evaluation, Negotiation and Request
208
3.
Conclusion
211
C.
Lawfulness of Arrest and Detention of Piracy Suspects
211
1.
Elements of Substantive and Procedural Lawfulness
212
a).
Under Article 5(1) ECHR
212
aa).
Existence of Legal Basis and Its Characteristics
212
bb).
Duty to Conform to Legal Basis and Its Correct Implementation
214
cc).
Degree of Scrutiny Exercised by Strasbourg Organs
215
b).
Under Article 9(1) ICCPR
216
c).
Conclusion
217
2.
Lawfulness of Piracy Suspect's Arrest on Suspicion of Criminal Activity
218
a).
By States Pursuing a Criminal Law Approach to Deprivation of Liberty
218
b).
By States Perceiving Alleged Pirates as "Extraordinary Suspects"
220
aa).
Propositions How to Fill the Normative Gap
220
bb).
Piracy: Applying the Lawfulness Test to Article 105 UNCLOS
222
cc).
Armed Robbery at Sea: Applying the Lawfulness Test to UNSCR 1846
226
dd).
Conclusion
228
c).
Within the EUNAVFOR Framework
230
3.
Lawfulness of Piracy Suspect's Detention with a View to Transfer
234
a).
Of Alleged Pirates: Article 105 UNCLOS
235
b).
Of Alleged Armed Robbers at Sea: UNSCR 1846
237
c).
Of Alleged "SUA Offenders": Article 7 SUA Convention
238
d).
Of Somali-Based Pirates Detained in EUNAVFOR Framework: EU Law
240
e).
Conclusion
241
D.
Non-Arbitrary Arrest and Detention of Piracy Suspects
242
1.
The Prohibition of Arbitrary Arrest and Detention
242
a).
Article 5(1) ECHR
242
b).
Article 9(1) ICCPR
243
2.
Non-Arbitrary Arrest and Detention of Piracy Suspects
244
II.
Procedural Safeguards for Piracy Suspects Deprived of Their Liberty
246
A.
Right to Information Concerning Deprivation of Liberty
247
1.
Piracy Suspects Are Beneficiaries of the Right to Information
248
a).
Article 5(2) ECHR
248
b).
Article 9(2) ICCPR
249
2.
Content and Extent of Information to Be Provided
251
a).
Initial Arrest Based on Suspicion of Criminal Activity
251
aa).
Article 5(2) ECHR
251
bb).
Article 9(2) ICCPR
254
b).
Detention Pending Transfer
255
3.
The Bearer, Form and Language of Information
259
4.
Promptness
261
a).
Arrest and Detention on Suspicion of Criminal Activity
261
aa).
Information about the Reasons of Arrest
261
bb).
Information about the Charges
262
b).
Detention Pending Transfer
263
B.
Right to Be Brought Promptly before a Judge
265
1.
The Purpose of the Guarantee
266
2.
The Applicability to Piracy Suspects
266
3.
Scope of Judicial Control
268
4.
Procedural Features of Judicial Control
269
a).
Automatic Judicial Control
269
b).
The Right to Be Heard
270
c).
The Right to "Prompt" Judicial Control
271
aa).
Article 5(3) ECHR
271
bb).
Article 9(3) ICCPR
275
5.
Competent Authority to Exercise Judicial Control
275
6.
Which Judge, When and How: Challenges in the Counter-Piracy Context
276
a).
Recalling the Practice
276
aa).
Criminal Law Approach to Arrest and Detention of Piracy Suspects
277
bb).
Piracy Suspects as "Extraordinary Suspects"
277
b).
A Judge of the Seizing or Receiving State?
279
aa).
Medvedyev and Rigopoulos: Impertinent to the Issue at Hand
279
bb).
Arguments against the Proposition "A Judge Is a Judge"
281
c).
Judicial Control by the Seizing State
283
aa).
Granting Judicial Control Soon after the Initial Arrest
283
bb).
Providing an Opportunity to Be Heard
286
d).
Conclusion
287
C.
Right to Judicial Review of the Lawfulness of Detention
287
1.
Applicability of Habeas Corpus Right to Piracy Suspects
288
2.
Applicability to Short-Term Detention
290
3.
The Scope of Judicial Review
292
a).
Testing the Lawfulness of Deprivation of Liberty
292
b).
Importance of Judicial Review in the Context of Piracy
295
4.
Features of the Procedure and Procedural Safeguards
297
a).
Receive Necessary Information
298
b).
Have an Opportunity to Be Heard
299
c).
Be Provided with Access to Counsel
301
d).
Have a Realistic Opportunity of Using the Remedy
301
e).
Obtain a Decision Speedily or without Delay
304
5.
A Court Must Take the Decision-Of Which State?
308
a).
The Notion of "Court"
308
b).
The Courts of the Seizing State
310
D.
Right to Consular Assistance
310
III.
Conclusions on Arrest and Detention
312
pt. 5
Transfer Decision Procedure in Light of International Individual Rights
315
I.
A Conditional Right Not to Be Transferred: Non-Refoulement
316
A.
No Transfer Prohibition Flowing from the Law of the Sea
316
B.
A Conditional Right Not to be Transferred under Human Rights Law
319
1.
No Absolute Right Not to Be Transferred under Human Rights Law
320
2.
A Conditional Right Not to Be Transferred: Non-Refoulement
323
a).
Similarities: Applicability of Non-Refoulement Principle
326
aa).
Extraterritorially on Board Law Enforcement Vessels
326
bb).
To Piracy Suspects
328
cc).
To the Removal Method of Transfers
329
dd).
To All Destinations to Which Piracy Suspects Are Sent
331
ee).
To Harm Potentially Inflicted upon Transfer and Re-Transfer
333
b).
Differences: Harm to Be Prevented by Refoulement Prohibitions
334
aa).
Prohibition of Torture and Other Forms of III-Treatment
334
bb).
Right to Life
348
cc).
Right to a Fair Trial
354
dd).
Right to Liberty and Security
356
C.
Conclusions on the Conditional Right Not to Be Transferred
358
II.
Right to an Individual Non-Refoulement Assessment
359
A.
The Practice: Global Rather than Individual Assessment
360
B.
The Law: Individual Rather than Global Assessment
361
1.
Transfer Agreements
361
a).
Not All Transfer Agreements Are Public
361
b).
Main Content of Transfer Agreements
362
2.
Transfer Agreements Cannot Replace Individual Assessment
363
3.
Assessment of Reliability and Effectiveness of Diplomatic Assurances
365
4.
Necessity of Individual Non-Refoulement Assessments at Sea
367
C.
Conclusions on the Right to an Individual Non-Refoulement Assessment
368
III.
Right to Be a Party to Transfer Proceedings
368
A.
Current Practice
369
B.
Procedural Dimension of the Principle of Non-Refoulement
370
1.
The Right to a Non-Refoulement Assessment
370
a).
Assessment Ex Proprio Motu
371
b).
Obligation to Establish an Assessment Procedure
371
2.
The Right to Review a Removal Decision
373
a).
Right to an Effective Remedy against a Removal Decision
373
aa).
ECHR
373
bb).
ICCPR
374
cc).
CAT
375
b).
Procedural Requirements
377
3.
Conclusion
378
C.
Procedural Safeguards Relating to Expulsion: Applicable to Piracy Suspects?
379
1.
Article 1 of Protocol 7 ECHR
379
2.
Article 13 ICCPR
381
a).
Applicability to Piracy Suspects
382
aa).
Applicability of Article 13 ICCPR to Extradition
382
bb).
Transfers Meet the Committee's Definition of Extradition
385
cc).
Piracy Suspects as "Aliens Lawfully in the Territory of a State Party"
388
b).
Removal Pursuant to a Decision Reached in Accordance with Law
393
c).
Implicit Due Process Guarantee
396
aa).
Impartiality
398
bb).
Fairness
399
cc).
Equality of Arms
401
d).
Explicit Procedural Guarantees
402
aa).
The Right to Submit Reasons against Removal
403
bb).
Right to Have His Case Reviewed
405
cc).
The Right to Be Represented
408
dd).
No "Compelling Reasons of National Security" in the Piracy Context
409
e).
Conclusion
411
D.
Fair Trial Rights: Applicable to Piracy Suspects?
412
1.
Equality before Courts and Tribunals
413
2.
Fair Hearing by a Tribunal with Certain Features
418
a).
Article 6(1) ECHR
418
aa).
No Full Determination of Innocence or Guilt
418
bb).
Analogy between Deportation and Extradition Proceedings
420
b).
Article 14(1) ICCPR
424
3.
Defence Rights
424
a).
Article 6(3) ECHR
425
aa).
No Full Determination of Innocence or Guilt
425
bb).
Analogy between Deportation and Extradition Proceedings
426
b).
Article 14(3) ICCPR
427
4.
Presumption of Innocence
427
a).
Article 6(2) ECHR
428
aa).
Guarantee Not Limited to Criminal Proceedings
428
bb).
Close Link between Impugned Statement and Criminal Proceedings Abroad
429
b).
Article 14(2) ICCPR
431
5.
Juvenile Offenders
431
6.
Conclusion
432
E.
Conclusions on the Right to Be a Party to Transfer Proceedings
433
IV.
Conclusions on Transfer Decision Procedure
435
Concluding Remarks
437
I.
Bibliography
443
II.
United Nations Documents
461
III.
Table of Cases
467
IV.
Table of Legislation
479
Index
485