Family responsibilities discrimination / Cynthia Thomas Calvert, the Center for WorkLife Law, Workforce 21C, Ellicott City, Maryland ; Joan C. Williams, the Center for WorkLife Law, University of California Hastings College of the Law, San Francisco, California ; Gary Phelan, Mitchell & Sheehan, P.C., Stratford and Stamford, Connecticut.
2014
KF3465.5 .C35 2014 (Map It)
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Title
Family responsibilities discrimination / Cynthia Thomas Calvert, the Center for WorkLife Law, Workforce 21C, Ellicott City, Maryland ; Joan C. Williams, the Center for WorkLife Law, University of California Hastings College of the Law, San Francisco, California ; Gary Phelan, Mitchell & Sheehan, P.C., Stratford and Stamford, Connecticut.
Published
Arlington, VA : Bloomberg BNA, [2014]
Copyright
©2014
Call Number
KF3465.5 .C35 2014
ISBN
9781617460630 hardcover
161746063X hardcover
161746063X hardcover
Description
xxxvi, 991 pages ; 26 cm
System Control No.
(OCoLC)892055759
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Record Appears in
Gift
Purchased from the income of the Edith L. Fisch Fund
Gift
The Arthur W. Diamond Law Library
Purchased from the income of the Edith L. Fisch Fund
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
vii
Preface
ix
Part I Introduction
ch. 1
Overview of Family Responsibilities Discrimination
3
I.
What Is Family Responsibilities Discrimination?
4
A.
Types of Caregiving
5
1.
Pregnancy and Maternity
5
2.
Motherhood and Fatherhood
5
3.
Elder Care
6
4.
Sick Spouse or Partner
6
5.
Family Member With a Disability
6
B.
Employees Affected
7
1.
Gender
7
2.
Occupation
7
C.
Employers Affected
8
D.
Types of Claims
8
E.
Legal Bases for Liability
10
F.
Why Is It Useful to Treat FRD Conceptually as a Separate Employment Law Claim?
11
G.
Why Is FRD Important Today?
11
H.
History
13
II.
Causes and Prevention
15
A.
Overview
15
B.
Primer on Bias
17
C.
What Can Be Done About Hidden Bias?
19
D.
Bias That Underlies FRD
20
1.
The "Ideal Worker" Norm
20
2.
Maternal Wall Bias
21
3.
Caregiving Cliff for Fathers
25
4.
Elder Caregiver Bias
26
5.
Flexibility Bias
27
E.
Business Case for FRD Prevention
29
F.
Action Steps for FRD Prevention
31
1.
Adopt an Anti-FRD Policy
31
2.
Training
32
a.
Formal Training
32
b.
Informal Training
32
3.
Coverage Planning
33
4.
Policy Review
33
5.
Metrics
34
6.
Grievance Procedure
34
7.
Active Oversight by the HR Department
35
8.
Create a Culture That Supports the Needs of Employees
36
G.
Why Flexible Work Schedules Do Not Prevent FRD
37
Part II Federal Law Governing Family Responsibilities Discrimination
ch. 2
Title VII Sex Discrimination
41
Introduction
43
I.
Statutory Overview
43
A.
Entities Covered by Title VII
43
B.
Individuals Covered by Title VII
44
1.
Temporary Workers
44
2.
Independent Contractors
45
3.
Business Owners and Partners
47
C.
Actions Prohibited by Title VII
47
D.
The Pregnancy Discrimination Act
48
II.
Family Responsibilities as Sex Discrimination
49
A.
Disparate Treatment
49
1.
Intent Requirement
49
2.
Direct Evidence
50
a.
Overview
50
b.
Selected FRD Direct Evidence Cases by Circuit
51
First Circuit
51
Second Circuit
52
Third Circuit
52
Fourth Circuit
53
Fifth Circuit
54
Sixth Circuit
55
Seventh Circuit
57
Eighth Circuit
58
Ninth Circuit
59
Tenth Circuit
60
Eleventh Circuit
60
3.
Circumstantial Evidence
61
a.
First Step: Prima Facie Case
62
i.
Protected Class
62
ii.
Qualified or Performing Satisfactorily
63
iii.
Adverse Employment Action
64
iv.
Under Circumstances That Give Rise to Inference of Unlawful Discrimination
65
a.
Comparator evidence
66
b.
Inference of discrimination
70
b.
Second Step: Employer's Legitimate, Nondiscriminatory Reason
72
c.
Third Step: Pretext
74
4.
Mixed-Motive Cases
78
B.
Sex-Plus
82
C.
Stereotype
85
1.
Overview
85
2.
Selected FRD Stereotyping Cases by Circuit
89
First Circuit
89
Second Circuit
90
Fourth Circuit
91
Fifth Circuit
92
Seventh Circuit
92
Eighth Circuit
93
Ninth Circuit
94
D.
Hostile Work Environment
95
1.
Harassment
95
2.
Constructive Discharge
97
3.
Affirmative Defense
99
4.
Selected FRD Hostile Work Environment Cases by Circuit
100
First Circuit
100
Second Circuit
101
Third Circuit
101
Fourth Circuit
102
Fifth Circuit
103
Sixth Circuit
104
Eighth Circuit
104
Tenth Circuit
105
D.C. Circuit
106
E.
Disparate Impact
106
1.
First Step in Disparate Impact Analysis
107
2.
Second Step in Disparate Impact Analysis
109
3.
Third Step in Disparate Impact Analysis
109
4.
Selected FRD Disparate Impact Cases by Circuit
110
Second Circuit
110
Fifth Circuit
111
Seventh Circuit
112
D.C. Circuit
112
III.
Title VII Retaliation in FRD Cases
112
A.
Overview
112
B.
Selected FRD Title VII Retaliation Cases by Circuit
116
First Circuit
116
Second Circuit
117
Third Circuit
117
Fourth Circuit
118
Fifth Circuit
119
Sixth Circuit
119
Seventh Circuit
120
Eighth Circuit
120
Ninth Circuit
120
Tenth Circuit
121
Eleventh Circuit
122
ch. 3
The Family and Medical Leave Act
125
Introduction
126
I.
Statutory Overview
127
A.
Covered Employers
128
1.
Integrated Employers
128
2.
Joint Employers
129
B.
Eligible Employees
131
C.
Leave to Care for Family Members
132
1.
Childbirth and Newborn Care
133
2.
Adoption and Foster Care
133
3.
Care for Family Members
134
a.
Type of Family Member
134
i.
Spouse
134
ii.
Son or Daughter
135
iii.
Parent
137
b.
Serious Health Condition
138
i.
What Constitutes a "Serious" Health Condition?
139
ii.
What Constitutes "Care" for a Serious Health Condition?
140
c.
Military Family Leave
145
4.
Intermittent and Reduced Leave Schedules
146
D.
Leave Requests
147
1.
Employee's Duty to Give Notice
147
2.
Employer's Response to Request
150
3.
Medical Certification
152
E.
Right to Reinstatement
153
F.
Enforcement
157
1.
Agency Enforcement
157
2.
Enforcement by Private Litigants
157
a.
Statute of Limitations
158
b.
Types of Claims
160
c.
Remedies
161
i.
Damages
161
ii.
Equitable Relief
163
II.
Common FRD Claims and Defenses Under the FMLA
163
A.
Interference With Substantive Rights
165
1.
Common Interference Claims
166
a.
Failure to Inform Employee of FMLA Rights
166
b.
Discouraging Leave
170
c.
Preemptive Termination
173
d.
Denial of Leave Request
176
e.
Interference With Certification
178
f.
Failure to Reinstate
180
g.
Employer's Affirmative Defense
183
B.
Retaliation for Exercising Rights
184
1.
The Bachelder Method of Proof
186
2.
Title VII Methods of Proof
188
a.
Direct Evidence
189
b.
Circumstantial Evidence
192
i.
Plaintiff's Prima Facie Case
192
ii.
Defendant's Legitimate, Nondiscriminatory Reason
196
iii.
Plaintiff's Proof of Pretext
196
iv.
Employer's Honest Belief Defense
200
3.
Common Discrimination Claims
201
a.
Termination for Requesting Leave
201
b.
Termination for Taking Leave
202
c.
Demotion or Job Diminishment
205
d.
Quotas, Performance Standards, and Negative Evaluations
209
e.
Denial of Promotion
212
C.
Equitable Estoppel
214
III.
Selected FRD FMLA Cases by Circuit
217
First Circuit
217
Second Circuit
219
Third Circuit
220
Fourth Circuit
223
Fifth Circuit
224
Sixth Circuit
225
Seventh Circuit
228
Eighth Circuit
229
Ninth Circuit
230
Tenth Circuit
232
Eleventh Circuit
233
D.C. Circuit
235
ch. 4
Americans with Disabilities Act
239
Introduction
241
I.
Overview of ADA Title I
241
A.
Covered Entities
242
B.
Covered Individuals
242
C.
Prohibited Actions
242
D.
Definition of Disability and the ADA Amendments Act of 2008
243
1.
Physical or Mental Impairment
244
a.
Substantially Limits
244
b.
Major Life Activity
246
2.
Record of Such an Impairment
246
3.
Being Regarded As Having Such an Impairment
247
E.
Qualified Individual
248
1.
Determining Essential Job Functions
249
a.
The Employer's Judgment
250
b.
A Written Job Description
250
c.
The Amount of Time Spent Performing the Function
250
d.
Consequences of Not Having Someone Perform the Function
251
e.
Other Relevant Factors
251
2.
Whether Attendance Is an Essential Function
252
F.
Reasonable Accommodation
253
1.
Informal, Interactive Process
254
2.
Best Available Accommodations Not Necessary
256
3.
Undue Hardship
256
4.
Burden of Proof
257
G.
Retaliation
258
H.
Enforcement
258
II.
Association Discrimination in the FRD Context
259
A.
Association With a Family Member Who Has a Disability
259
1.
Direct Evidence Cases
261
2.
Indirect Evidence Cases
262
a.
The Plaintiff's Prima Facie Case
262
b.
The Employer's Legitimate Reason
268
c.
The Plaintiff's Showing of Pretext
269
B.
Selected FRD Cases
271
First Circuit
271
Second Circuit
271
Third Circuit
272
Fourth Circuit
273
Fifth Circuit
274
Sixth Circuit
275
Seventh Circuit
275
Eighth Circuit
277
Ninth Circuit
277
Tenth Circuit
278
Eleventh Circuit
279
III.
Reasonable Accommodation of Pregnancy-Related Disabilities
280
A.
Pre-Amendment Pregnancy and Disability Jurisprudence
281
B.
Current Law Regarding Reasonable Accommodation of Pregnancy-Related Disabilities
283
1.
Short Duration Impairments as Disabilities
283
2.
Effect of Expansion of "Major Life Activity" and Restriction of "Substantially Limited"
285
3.
Conditions Related to Normal Pregnancy as Disabilities
286
4.
Post-ADAAA Pregnancy Accommodation Cases
287
C.
Common Pregnancy-Related Conditions That May Require Accommodation
291
1.
Morning Sickness
293
2.
Back Pain
294
3.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
294
4.
Fatigue
295
5.
Conditions That Lead to Lifting Restrictions
295
6.
Gestational Diabetes
296
7.
Hypertension
296
8.
Preeclampsia
297
9.
Perinatal Depression
297
D.
Reasonable Accommodations for Pregnancy-Related Conditions
297
1.
Leave of Absence
298
2.
Part-Time or Modified Schedules
299
3.
Working From Home
299
4.
Job Restructuring
301
5.
Light Duty
301
6.
Reassignment
302
E.
Retaliation for Seeking Accommodation
302
F.
Selected FRD Cases
305
Second Circuit
305
Seventh Circuit
306
Ninth Circuit
307
IV.
Pregnant Employees Regarded as Disabled
307
A.
Application of "Regarded As" Prong to Pregnant Employees
307
1.
Discrimination Because of Mistaken Perception of Disability
308
2.
Discrimination Because of Actual Disability
311
B.
Selected FRD Cases
312
Second Circuit
312
Third Circuit
312
Sixth Circuit
313
ch. 5
The Employee Retirement Income Security Act
315
Introduction
315
I.
Pension Credits in Maternity Leave Cases
316
II.
Interference With Benefits
316
A.
Benefits in FRD Cases
316
B.
Procedure
317
III.
ERISA Preemption in FRD Cases
319
IV.
Selected FRD ERISA Cases by Circuit
320
U.S. Supreme Court
320
Second Circuit
320
Fourth Circuit
321
Fifth Circuit
321
Sixth Circuit
321
Seventh Circuit
322
Eighth Circuit
323
Tenth Circuit
324
ch. 6
The Equal Pay Act
325
I.
Statutory Overview
325
II.
FRD Claims Under the EPA
326
A.
Burdens of Proof
327
1.
Plaintiff's Prima Facie Case
327
a.
Substantially Equal Work
327
b.
Similar Working Conditions
330
c.
Paid at a Lower Wage Rate
331
2.
Employer's Defense
332
3.
Plaintiff's Rebuttal
335
B.
Comparison With Disparate Wage Claims Under Title VII
336
III.
Selected FRD EPA Cases by Circuit
337
Second Circuit
337
Fourth Circuit
337
Sixth Circuit
337
Seventh Circuit
338
Ninth Circuit
338
Eleventh Circuit
338
Part III State and Local Law Governing Family Responsibilities Discrimination
ch. 7
State and Local Statutory Overview
343
Introduction
343
I.
State Statutes
343
A.
State Statutes That Expressly Prohibit FRD
343
B.
Overview of State Antidiscrimination Statutes
345
C.
Overview of State Leave Laws
346
II.
Local Statutes
349
A.
County and Municipal Ordinances That Expressly Prohibit FRD
349
ch. 8
State Common Law Overview
351
Introduction
351
I.
Wrongful Discharge
353
A.
Overview
353
B.
Selected FRD Wrongful Discharge Cases
356
II.
Infliction of Emotional Distress
359
A.
Overview
359
B.
Selected FRD Emotional Distress Cases
362
III.
Breach of Contract
365
A.
Overview
365
B.
Selected FRD Breach of Contract Cases
366
IV.
Promissory Estoppel
369
A.
Overview
369
B.
Selected FRD Promissory Estoppel Cases
371
V.
Implied Covenant of Good Faith and Fair Dealing
373
A.
Overview
373
B.
Selected FRD Covenant of Good Faith and Fair Dealing Cases
373
VI.
Tortious Interference With Contract
374
A.
Overview
374
B.
Selected FRD Tortious Interference Cases
376
VII.
Invasion of Privacy
376
VIII.
Defamation
378
A.
Overview
378
B.
Selected FRD Defamation Cases
379
ch. 9
State Law and FRD
383
Introduction
391
I.
Alabama
392
A.
Statutory Overview
392
1.
State Laws
392
a.
Family Leave Law
392
B.
Common Law
392
C.
Selected FRD Cases
393
II.
Alaska
393
A.
Statutory Overview
393
1.
State Laws
393
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
393
b.
Family Leave Law
394
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
394
2.
Local Laws
395
B.
Common Law
395
III.
Arizona
396
A.
Statutory Overview
396
1.
State Laws
396
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
396
b.
Family Leave Law
396
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
397
B.
Common Law
397
C.
Selected FRD Cases
398
IV.
Arkansas
399
A.
Statutory Overview
399
1.
State Laws
399
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
399
b.
Family Leave Law
399
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
400
B.
Common Law
400
C.
Selected FRD Cases
400
V.
California
402
A.
Statutory Overview
402
1.
State Laws
402
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
402
b.
Family Leave Law
404
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
407
2.
Local Laws
407
B.
Common Law
408
C.
Selected FRD Cases
411
VI.
Colorado
417
A.
Statutory Overview
417
1.
State Laws
417
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
417
b.
Family Leave Law
417
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
417
2.
Local Laws
418
B.
Common Law
418
C.
Selected FRD Cases
419
VII.
Connecticut
420
A.
Statutory Overview
420
1.
State Laws
420
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
420
b.
Family Leave Law
421
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
422
2.
Local Laws
423
B.
Common Law
423
C.
Selected FRD Cases
426
VIII.
Delaware
429
A.
Statutory Overview
429
1.
State Laws
429
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
429
b.
Family Leave Law
430
B.
Common Law
430
C.
Selected FRD Cases
430
IX.
District of Columbia
430
A.
Statutory Overview
430
1.
State Laws
430
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
430
b.
Family Leave Law
432
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
433
B.
Common Law
433
C.
Selected FRD Cases
433
X.
Florida
435
A.
Statutory Overview
435
1.
State Laws
435
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
435
b.
Family Leave Law
436
2.
Local Laws
437
B.
Common Law
438
C.
Selected FRD Cases
439
XI.
Georgia
441
A.
Statutory Overview
441
1.
State Laws
441
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
441
2.
Local Laws
441
B.
Common Law
442
XII.
Hawaii
442
A.
Statutory Overview
442
1.
State Laws
442
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
442
b.
Family Leave Law
444
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
444
B.
Common Law
445
C.
Selected FRD Cases
445
XIII.
Idaho
446
A.
Statutory Overview
446
1.
State Laws
446
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
446
b.
Family Leave Law
446
B.
Selected FRD Cases
447
XIV.
Illinois
448
A.
Statutory Overview
448
1.
State Laws
448
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
448
b.
Family Leave Law
448
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
448
2.
Local Laws
449
B.
Common Law
451
C.
Selected FRD Cases
452
XV.
Indiana
454
A.
Statutory Overview
454
1.
State Laws
454
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
454
2.
Local Laws
454
B.
Common Law
455
C.
Selected FRD Cases
455
XVI.
Iowa
455
A.
Statutory Overview
455
1.
State Laws
455
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
455
b.
Family Leave Law
456
B.
Common Law
456
C.
Selected FRD Cases
457
XVII.
Kansas
459
A.
Statutory Overview
459
1.
State Laws
459
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
459
b.
Family Leave Law
460
2.
Local Laws
460
B.
Common Law
461
C.
Selected FRD Cases
462
XVIII.
Kentucky
463
A.
Statutory Overview
463
1.
State Laws
463
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
463
b.
Family Leave Law
463
2.
Local Laws
463
B.
Common Law
464
C.
Selected FRD Cases
464
XIX.
Louisiana
465
A.
Statutory Overview
465
1.
State Laws
465
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
465
b.
Family Leave Law
466
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
466
B.
Common Law
467
C.
Selected FRD Cases
467
XX.
Maine
468
A.
Statutory Overview
468
1.
State Laws
468
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
468
b.
Family Leave Law
469
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
469
B.
Common Law
469
C.
Selected FRD Cases
470
XXI.
Maryland
472
A.
Statutory Overview
472
1.
State Laws
472
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
472
b.
Family Leave Law
473
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
473
2.
Local Laws
474
B.
Common Law
476
C.
Selected FRD Cases
478
XXII.
Massachusetts
478
A.
Statutory Overview
478
1.
State Laws
478
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
478
b.
Family Leave Law
479
2.
Local Laws
480
B.
Common Law
482
C.
Selected FRD Cases
483
XXIII.
Michigan
488
A.
Statutory Overview
488
1.
State Laws
488
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
488
2.
Local Laws
489
B.
Common Law
490
C.
Selected FRD Cases
491
XXIV.
Minnesota
493
A.
Statutory Overview
493
1.
State Laws
493
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
493
b.
Family Leave Law
494
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
495
2.
Local Laws
496
B.
Common Law
496
C.
Selected FRD Cases
497
XXV.
Mississippi
500
A.
Statutory Overview
500
1.
State Laws
500
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
500
b.
Family Leave Law
500
B.
Common Law
500
XXVI.
Missouri
501
A.
Statutory Overview
501
1.
State Laws
501
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
501
2.
Local Laws
502
B.
Common Law
503
C.
Selected FRD Cases
503
XXVII.
Montana
504
A.
Statutory Overview
504
1.
State Laws
504
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
504
b.
Family Leave Law
505
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
505
B.
Common Law
506
C.
Selected FRD Cases
506
XXVIII.
Nebraska
507
A.
Statutory Overview
507
1.
State Laws
507
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
507
b.
Family Leave Law
507
B.
Common Law
508
XXIX.
Nevada
508
A.
Statutory Overview
508
1.
State Laws
508
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
508
b.
Family Leave Law
508
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
508
B.
Common Law
509
C.
Selected FRD Cases
509
XXX.
New Hampshire
510
A.
Statutory Overview
510
1.
State Laws
510
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
510
b.
Family Leave Law
511
B.
Common Law
511
XXXI.
New Jersey
512
A.
Statutory Overview
512
1.
State Laws
512
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
512
b.
Family Leave Law
514
2.
Local Laws
515
B.
Common Law
517
C.
Selected FRD Cases
518
XXXII.
New Mexico
520
A.
Statutory Overview
520
1.
State Laws
520
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
520
b.
Family Leave Law
521
B.
Common Law
521
C.
Selected FRD Cases
521
XXXIII.
New York
523
A.
Statutory Overview
523
1.
State Laws
523
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
523
b.
Family Leave Law
524
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
524
2.
Local Laws
525
B.
Common Law
526
C.
Selected FRD Cases
528
XXXIV.
North Carolina
531
A.
Statutory Overview
531
1.
State Laws
531
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
531
b.
Family Leave Law
531
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
531
2.
Local Laws
532
B.
Common Law
532
XXXV.
North Dakota
533
A.
Statutory Overview
533
1.
State Laws
533
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
533
b.
Family Leave Law
533
B.
Common Law
533
XXXVI.
Ohio
534
A.
Statutory Overview
534
1.
State Laws
534
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
534
b.
Family Leave Law
534
2.
Local Laws
535
B.
Common Law
536
C.
Selected FRD Cases
537
XXXVII.
Oklahoma
539
A.
Statutory Overview
539
1.
State Laws
539
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
539
b.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
540
2.
Local Laws
540
B.
Common Law
540
C.
Selected FRD Cases
541
XXXVIII.
Oregon
542
A.
Statutory Overview
542
1.
State Laws
542
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
542
b.
Family Leave Law
542
2.
Local Laws
543
B.
Common Law
545
C.
Selected FRD Cases
546
XXXIX.
Pennsylvania
549
A.
Statutory Overview
549
1.
State Laws
549
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
549
b.
Family Leave Law
551
2.
Local Laws
551
B.
Common Law
555
C.
Selected FRD Cases
557
XL.
Puerto Rico
558
A.
Statutory Overview
558
1.
State Laws
558
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
558
b.
Family Leave Law
560
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
561
B.
Common Law
561
C.
Selected FRD Cases
563
XLI.
Rhode Island
566
A.
Statutory Overview
566
1.
State Laws
566
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
566
b.
Family Leave Law
567
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
568
B.
Common Law
568
C.
Selected FRD Cases
568
XLII.
South Carolina
569
A.
Statutory Overview
569
1.
State Laws
569
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
569
b.
Family Leave Law
569
B.
Common Law
570
XLIII.
South Dakota
570
A.
Statutory Overview
570
1.
State Laws
570
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
570
2.
Local Laws
571
B.
Common Law
571
XLIV.
Tennessee
572
A.
Statutory Overview
572
1.
State Laws
572
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
572
b.
Family Leave Law
572
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
573
B.
Common Law
573
XLV.
Texas
574
A.
Statutory Overview
574
1.
State Laws
574
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
574
b.
Family Leave Law
574
2.
Local Laws
575
B.
Common Law
575
C.
Selected FRD Cases
576
XLVI.
Utah
577
A.
Statutory Overview
577
1.
State Laws
577
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
577
B.
Common Law
578
C.
Selected FRD Cases
578
XLVII.
Vermont
579
A.
Statutory Overview
579
1.
State Laws
579
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
579
b.
Family Leave Law
579
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
580
B.
Common Law
581
C.
Selected FRD Cases
582
XLVIII.
Virginia
583
A.
Statutory Overview
583
1.
State Laws
583
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
583
b.
Family Leave Law
583
B.
Common Law
583
C.
Selected FRD Cases
584
XLIX.
Washington
585
A.
Statutory Overview
585
1.
State Laws
585
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
585
b.
Family Leave Law
586
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
587
2.
Local Laws
587
B.
Common Law
588
C.
Selected FRD Cases
588
L.
West Virginia
590
A.
Statutory Overview
590
1.
State Laws
590
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
590
b.
Family Leave Law
591
2.
Local Laws
592
B.
Common Law
592
C.
Selected FRD Cases
592
LI.
Wisconsin
593
A.
Statutory Overview
593
1.
State Laws
593
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
593
b.
Family Leave Law
594
c.
Other Statutes Affecting Caregivers
595
2.
Local Laws
595
B.
Common Law
596
C.
Selected FRD Cases
596
LII.
Wyoming
597
A.
Statutory Overview
597
1.
State Laws
597
a.
Antidiscrimination Law
597
B.
Common Law
597
Part IV FRD and Particular Types of Employees
ch. 10
Public Employees
601
I.
Introduction
602
II.
State and Local Government Employees
602
A.
Discrimination Complaints
602
1.
Civil Service Laws
602
2.
Section 1983
603
a.
Fourteenth Amendment: Equal Protection
604
b.
Fourteenth Amendment: Due Process
606
B.
Family and Medical Leave Act
608
III.
Federal Government Employees
609
A.
Discrimination Complaints
609
1.
EEO Procedures
610
2.
Civil Service Reform Act
611
3.
The Office of the Special Council
614
4.
Executive Orders
614
B.
FMLA
616
C.
Rehabilitation Act
617
IV.
Selected FRD Public Employee Cases
617
A.
Federal Cases
617
First Circuit
617
Second Circuit
619
Third Circuit
620
Fourth Circuit
622
Fifth Circuit
623
Sixth Circuit
623
Seventh Circuit
624
Eighth Circuit
626
Ninth Circuit
627
Tenth Circuit
627
Eleventh Circuit
628
D.C. Circuit
629
Federal Circuit
630
EEOC
630
Merit Systems Protection Board
631
B.
State Cases
632
New Jersey
632
New York
633
ch. 11
Pregnant Employees
635
Introduction
636
I.
Pregnancy as a Choice
637
II.
Discrimination Because of Pregnancy
638
A.
Title VII and the PDA
638
1.
Disparate Treatment
639
a.
Proof With Comparators
640
b.
Proof Without Comparators
645
2.
Stereotyping
648
3.
Hostile Work Environment
651
B.
State and Local Laws
653
C.
The ADA
656
D.
Wrongful Discharge
658
III.
Accommodation of Pregnancy and Pregnancy-Related Conditions
661
A.
The PDA
661
B.
ADA Accommodation
663
C.
FMLA Intermittent Leave
665
D.
State and Local Laws
667
E.
Particular Accommodations
670
1.
Light Duty and Lifting Restrictions
670
2.
Leave
675
3.
Working From Home
677
4.
Schedule Modifications
678
F.
Are Accommodations "Special Treatment"?
679
IV.
Maternity Leave
680
A.
Entitlement to Leave
680
1.
The FMLA
680
2.
Right to Maternity Leave Under the PDA
683
3.
State Law Guarantees
683
B.
Discrimination for Requesting or Taking Leave
685
1.
FMLA Claims
686
2.
ERISA Claims
688
C.
Extension of Leave
689
V.
Additional Issues Related to Pregnancy
691
A.
Potential to Become Pregnant
691
B.
Infertility
692
VI.
Selected Additional Pregnancy Cases
695
First Circuit
695
Second Circuit
696
Third Circuit
698
Fourth Circuit
699
Fifth Circuit
700
Sixth Circuit
700
Seventh Circuit
701
Eighth Circuit
703
Ninth Circuit
703
Tenth Circuit
704
Eleventh Circuit
706
ch. 12
Employees With Flexible Work Schedules
709
I.
Introduction
710
A.
Background
710
B.
Overview
711
II.
Statutory Bases for FRD Claims Related to Flexible Work Schedules
713
A.
Sex Discrimination Laws
713
1.
Disparate Treatment
713
2.
Pregnancy Discrimination
715
3.
Stereotyping
717
4.
Hostile Work Environment
719
5.
Constructive Discharge
719
6.
Retaliation
720
7.
Disparate Impact
721
B.
Family Leave Laws
722
C.
Disability Discrimination Laws
723
1.
Pregnancy-Related Disabilities
723
2.
Disability Association
725
D.
Equal Pay Laws
725
E.
State Laws
726
1.
Laws That Prohibit FRD
726
2.
Pregnancy Accommodation Laws
727
III.
Common Law Bases for FRD Claims Related to Flexible Work Schedules
728
A.
Breach of Contract
728
B.
Promissory Estoppel
728
C.
Tortious Interference With Contract
729
D.
Misrepresentation
730
E.
Infliction of Emotional Distress
731
IV.
Selected Additional FRD Cases Related to Flexible Work Schedules
732
First Circuit
732
Seventh Circuit
733
Tenth Circuit
733
Massachusetts
734
Missouri
734
ch. 13
Male Caregivers
735
Introduction
735
I.
FRD Against Males as Sex Discrimination
736
A.
Disparate Treatment
736
1.
Comparators
737
2.
Particular Types of Disparate Treatment
738
a.
Paternity Leave
738
b.
Flexible Scheduling
741
B.
Stereotyping
742
II.
Male Caregivers and the FMLA
746
A.
Denial of Leave
747
B.
Retaliation for Requesting or Taking Leave
748
C.
Denial of Promotion
751
III.
Male Caregivers and Disability Association
754
Part V Comparative Law
ch. 14
Family Responsibilities Discrimination in Canada
759
Introduction
760
I.
Statutory Leaves of Absence and FRD
761
Table 1: Statutory References by Province
762
A.
Maternity Leave
764
B.
Parental Leave
764
C.
Paternity Leave (Quebec)
764
D.
Bereavement Leave
764
E.
Compassionate Care Leave
765
F.
Care, Health, or Education Leave
765
Table 2: Maternity Leave Provisions by Province
766
Table 3: Parental/Adoption Leave
770
G.
Emergency Leave (Ontario)
774
II.
Human Rights Law and FRD
774
A.
General Test for Discrimination
775
B.
Bona Fide Occupational Requirements (BFOR)
775
C.
Commonly Litigated Protected Grounds
776
D.
Developing Jurisprudence Regarding Pregnancy Discrimination and Family Status Discrimination
776
1.
Pregnancy Discrimination
776
Table 4: Common Family Responsibilities[—]Related Prohibited Grounds of Discrimination (Employment) by Jurisdiction
777
2.
Family Status Discrimination
779
a.
The Campbell River Line of Decisions: The High Threshold
780
b.
The Johnstone 1 Approach: The Lower Threshold
782
c.
Post-Campbell River and -Johnstone 1
783
III.
Trends and Future Developments
787
A.
Ontario
787
B.
New Brunswick
787
C.
Continuing Litigation Regarding Family Status
788
Appendix A. Enforcement Guidance: Unlawful Disparate Treatment Of Workers With Caregiving Responsibilities
791
Appendix B. Employer Best Practices For Workers With Caregiving Responsibilities
835
Appendix C. FRD Prevention Program
861
Appendix D. Family Responsibilities Discrimination: Model Policies For Employee Handbooks
865
Appendix E. Sample Policies On Family Responsibilities Discrimination For Management Policy Manuals
871
Appendix F. Family Responsibilities Discrimination Common Fact Patterns And Possible Frd Claims
875
Appendix G. Checklist For Responding To Employee FRD Complaints
881
Appendix H. Worklife Law Attorney Network Intake Sheet
885
Appendix I. Some Pregnancy Conditions That Commonly Give Rise To The Need For Workplace Accommodations
889
Appendix J. Bibliography Of Social Science
899
Table Of Cases
903
Index
945
About The Authors
989