Prosecuting the destruction of cultural property in international criminal law : with a case study on the Khmer Rouge's destruction of Cambodia's heritage / by Caroline Ehlert.
2014
K3791 .E35 2014 (Map It)
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Details
Author
Title
Prosecuting the destruction of cultural property in international criminal law : with a case study on the Khmer Rouge's destruction of Cambodia's heritage / by Caroline Ehlert.
Published
Leiden : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2014.
Call Number
K3791 .E35 2014
ISBN
9789004257627 (hardback : alk. paper)
9004257624 (hardback : alk. paper)
9789004257634 (e-book)
9004257624 (hardback : alk. paper)
9789004257634 (e-book)
Description
xiv, 252 pages ; 24 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)856879309
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references (pages 235-245) and index.
Record Appears in
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
xi
Abbreviations
xiii
Introduction
1
Preliminary Remarks
7
1.
Concept of International Criminal Law
7
2.
Sources of International Criminal Law
7
I.
International Treaties
8
II.
Customary International Law
11
III.
General Principles of Law
11
IV.
Judicial Decisions and Teachings
12
V.
Others
13
ch. 1
Prohibition of the Destruction of Cultural Property in International Treaty Law
15
1.
Historical Development
15
I.
The Classical Law
15
II.
Renaissance
16
III.
The Lieber Code
19
IV.
The 1874 Brussels Declaration and the 1880 Oxford Manual
20
V.
Developments between the two World Wars
23
2.
The 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions
26
I.
Scope of Application
27
II.
Definition of Cultural Property
28
III.
Protection of Cultural Property
29
IV.
Violations of the Treaty
32
3.
The Genocide Convention
33
4.
The Geneva Conventions
37
I.
Scope of Application
38
1.
International Armed Conflict
38
2.
Non-International Armed Conflict
39
3.
Belligerent Occupation
40
II.
Definition of Cultural Property
40
III.
Protection of Cultural Property
41
IV.
Violations of the Treaty
41
5.
The 1954 Hague Convention
42
I.
Scope of Application
44
1.
International Armed Conflict
44
2.
Non-International Armed Conflict
45
3.
Belligerent Occupation
47
II.
Definition of Cultural Property
48
III.
Protection of Cultural Property
50
1.
General Protection
51
2.
Special Protection
55
IV.
Violations of the Treaty
59
6.
The 1972 Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
60
I.
Scope of Application
61
II.
Definition of Cultural Property
61
III.
Protection of Cultural Property
63
1.
General Protection
63
2.
Special Protection
64
IV.
Violations of the Treaty
66
7.
The 1977 Additional Protocols to the Geneva Conventions of 1949
66
I.
Scope of Application
67
1.
International Armed Conflict
67
2.
Non-International Armed Conflict
68
3.
Belligerent Occupation
69
II.
Definition of Cultural Property
70
III.
Protection of Cultural Property
72
1.
General Protection
72
2.
Special Protection
74
IV.
Violations of the Treaty
78
8.
The 1999 Second Hague Protocol
81
I.
Scope of Application
82
II.
Definition of Cultural Property
83
III.
Protection of Cultural Property
84
1.
General Protection
84
2.
Enhanced Protection
88
IV.
Violations of the Treaty
92
9.
The 2003 UNESCO Declaration concerning the Intentional Destruction of Cultural Heritage
96
I.
Scope of Application
98
II.
Definition of Cultural Property
98
III.
Protection of Cultural Property
99
IV.
Violations of the Declaration
100
10.
Interim Conclusion
101
ch. 2
The Prosecution of the Destruction of Cultural Property in the Practice of the International Criminal Tribunals
107
1.
Structures of Crimes under International Criminal Law
107
2.
War Crimes
108
I.
Evolution and Definition
108
II.
General Requirements
111
1.
Serious Violation of International Humanitarian Law
111
2.
Existence of an Armed Conflict or Belligerent Occupation
113
a.
International or Internal Armed Conflict
114
b.
Applicability, ratione temporis and loci
116
c.
Belligerent Occupation
117
3.
Nexus between the Underlying Offence and the Armed Conflict
117
4.
Mens Rea
119
a.
Mens Rea in General
119
b.
Mens Rea for War Crimes
120
III.
Underlying Offences with regard to Destruction of Cultural Property
120
1.
Lex Generalis
120
2.
Lex Specialis
121
3.
Object of the Offence
125
4.
Nature of the Offence
129
5.
Level of Gravity of the Offence
132
6.
Not justified by Military Necessity
135
7.
Mens Rea
139
3.
Crimes against Humanity
141
I.
Evolution and Definition
141
II.
General Requirements
144
1.
Part of a Widespread or Systematic Attack
144
a.
Attack
144
b.
Widespread or Systematic
148
2.
Directed against any Civilian Population
150
3.
On National, Political, Ethnical, Racial or Religious Grounds
153
4.
Mens Rea
155
III.
Underlying Offence with regard to the Destruction of Cultural Property: Persecution
156
1.
Deprivation of a Fundamental Right
158
2.
Nature of the Offence
159
3.
Level of Gravity of the Offence
164
4.
Mens Rea
167
a.
Political, Racial, or Religious Grounds for Persecution
168
b.
Other Grounds for Persecution
170
4.
Interim Conclusion
171
I.
War Crimes
171
II.
Crimes against Humanity
173
ch. 3
Case Study Cambodia
175
1.
Background to the Khmer Rouge Regime
175
I.
Democratic Kampuchea
175
II.
1978 Rebellions in the Eastern Zone
178
III.
Armed Conflict with Vietnam
179
IV.
Destruction of Cultural Property
180
1.
The Monkhood
180
2.
Buddhist Places of Worship
181
3.
Buddha Images and Buddhist Books
184
4.
Temple Complex of Angkor
185
5.
Orders concerning the Destruction
186
V.
Cambodia after 1979
187
2.
The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)
189
I.
Establishment of the ECCC
189
II.
Nature of the ECCC
191
III.
Jurisdiction of the ECCC
192
IV.
Structure of the ECCC
194
V.
Procedural Law of the ECCC
196
VI.
The Cases
197
3.
Direct Applicability of the 1954 Hague Convention by the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
198
I.
Preliminary Observations
200
1.
Principle of Legality
200
2.
Serious Violation of International Humanitarian Law
202
II.
Elements of the Crime
203
1.
Existence of an Armed Conflict
203
a.
International Armed Conflict
203
b.
Non-International Armed Conflict
204
c.
Belligerent Occupation
205
2.
Nexus between the Destruction of Cultural Property and the Armed Conflict
206
3.
Object of the Offence
206
4.
Nature of the Offence
209
5.
Level of Gravity of the Offence
211
6.
Not justified by Military Necessity
211
7.
Mens Rea
212
4.
Alternative Provisions for the Prosecution of the Destruction of Cultural Property at the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia
213
I.
Grave Breaches of the 1949 Geneva Convention
213
II.
1956 Penal Code
214
III.
Crimes against Humanity
216
1.
General Requirements
217
a.
Existence of an Armed Conflict?
217
b.
Part of a Widespread or Systematic Attack
220
c.
On National, Political, Ethnical, Racial or Religious Grounds
222
d.
Nexus between the Acts of the Accused and the Attack
223
e.
Mens Rea
223
2.
Underlying Offence with regard to Destruction of Cultural Property: Persecution
224
a.
Deprivation of Fundamental Right
224
b.
Nature of the Offence
225
c.
Level of Gravity of the Offence
225
d.
Mens Rea
226
5.
Interim Conclusion
227
Conclusion
229
1.
Prosecuting the Destruction of Cultural Property during Armed Conflicts
229
2.
Prosecuting the Destruction of Cultural Property during Peacetime
230
Bibliography
235
Index
247