Libya, from repression to revolution : a record of armed conflict and international law violations, 2011-2013 / edited by M. Cherif Bassiouni.
2013
KZ6795.L53 L53 2013 (Map It)
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Title
Libya, from repression to revolution : a record of armed conflict and international law violations, 2011-2013 / edited by M. Cherif Bassiouni.
Published
Leiden, The Netherlands : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2013.
Call Number
KZ6795.L53 L53 2013
ISBN
9789004257344 (hardback : alk. paper)
9004257349 (hardback : alk. paper)
9789004257351 (e-book)
9004257357
9789004257351
9004257349 (hardback : alk. paper)
9789004257351 (e-book)
9004257357
9789004257351
Description
xiii, 933 pages : maps ; 25 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)856579616
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Record Appears in
Added Author
Table of Contents
About the Editor
xv
The Contributors
xvii
Acknowledgements
xix
General Introduction
xxi
Glossary of Terms
xxxiii
A Note on Transliteration
xxxix
A Note on the Reports of the International Commission of Inquiry on Libya
xli
Basic Facts about Libya
xliii
Chronology of Events
li
pt. ONE
THE LIBYAN CONFLICT IN CONTEXT: HISTORY OF REPRESSION AND THE AFTERMATH OF REVOLUTION
Introduction to Part One
3
I.
Historical Background
11
1.
Introduction
11
2.
Ancient Libya: 10th Century BCE--642 CE
14
3.
The Arab Domination Period: 642--1517 CE
17
4.
The First Ottoman Domination and the Qaramanli Dynasty: 1551--1835
20
5.
The Second Ottoman Domination: 1835--1911
22
6.
Italian Colonial Domination and the Shaping of the Libyan Nation: 1911--1943
27
6.1.
Occupation and Resistance
27
6.2.
WWII and the Western Desert Campaign
35
7.
Independence and the Establishment of the Kingdom of Libya: 1943--1969
37
7.1.
Establishing Independence
37
7.2.
The Early Independence Period
42
8.
The Libyan Arab Republic and the Rise of Mu'ammar Qadhafi: 1969--1977
48
8.1.
The Free Unionist Officers Movement and the 1969 Coup
48
8.2.
Qadhafi's Popular Revolution
58
9.
The Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyya: 1977--2001
63
9.1.
The 1977 Declaration of the Establishment of the Jamahiriyya
63
9.2.
Exporting Revolution and Confrontation with the West
73
10.
Libya and the West, A New Era of Economic, Diplomatic and Security Relations: 2001--2011
80
10.1.
The Post-9/11 Global War on Terrorism
82
10.2.
Economic Incentives
88
10.3.
Military Relations and Weapons Procurement
90
10.4.
Human Rights Considerations
95
11.
Qadhafi: A History of Political Terror
101
11.1.
The Legacy of Fear and Psycho-Social Trauma
101
11.2.
Support for International Terrorism
104
12.
Conclusion
120
II.
The Evolution of the Armed Conflict: 2011--2012
123
1.
Introduction
123
2.
Military Forces and Organizational Structure
127
2.1.
Background on the Libyan Military
127
2.2.
The Qadhafi Forces
133
2.3.
The Thuwar Forces
142
3.
Stages of the Conflict
149
3.1.
Military Analysis and Overview
149
3.2.
The Protest Phase
154
3.3.
The Armed Conflict
158
3.4.
The Post-Qadhafi Period
184
4.
Conclusion
186
Appendix: Glossary of the Weapons Used During the Conflict
189
III.
The NATO Campaign: An Analysis of the 2011 Intervention
197
1.
Introduction
197
2.
Overview of the NATO Campaign
199
2.1.
The U.S. Role in the NATO Operations
205
3.
The Legal Framework for the Use of Force
207
4.
The Security Council's Practice under Chapter VII and The Use of Force
214
5.
The Security Council and the Libyan Conflict
220
5.1.
Compliance with the UN Charter and the Security Council Resolution Authorizing Use of Force
223
5.2.
Jus in Bello and the Absolute Obligation to Comply with the Laws of War: The Rules of Distinction and Proportionality
230
6.
NATO Airstrikes
234
6.1.
Phases of Operations
235
6.2.
A Survey of Incidents
240
7.
Assessing NATO Operations
256
7.1.
Direct Foreign Assistance for Opposition Forces
256
7.2.
Military Targets and Civilian Casualties
262
8.
Conclusion
268
Appendix: Letters From NATO's Legal Adviser Regarding Controversial Strikes
274
IV.
Accountability Issues
289
1.
Introduction
289
2.
Applicable Law
295
2.1.
Non-State Actors
300
3.
Phases of the Conflict
305
3.1.
Classification of Phases
305
3.2.
Emergence of an Internal Conflict
305
3.3.
Emergence of a Conflict of a Non-International Character
306
3.4.
Coexistence of an International Armed Conflict
311
3.5.
Post-Conflict
313
4.
Violations
314
5.
Other Legal Issues
320
5.1.
Superior Responsibility for IHL and ICL Violations
320
5.2.
The Contracting Scope of Vicarious Liability under International Criminal Law
329
6.
The Peculiarities of Post-Conflict Justice in Libya
335
6.1.
Legislative Measures
344
6.2.
Post Conflict Justice before the International Criminal Court and National Courts
355
6.3.
The Major Cases
367
6.4.
Other Domestic Investigations and Proceedings
389
7.
Conclusion
400
V.
The Post-Conflict Period
407
1.
Introduction
407
2.
The Security Landscape in the Post-Qadhafi Era
412
2.1.
Revolutionary Forces and the Interim-Government
414
2.2.
Disarming and Disbanding Non-State Armed Actors
419
2.3.
Detention Facilities
423
2.4.
Continued Instability
427
3.
The Proliferation of Weapons
431
4.
The 11 September 2012 Attack in Benghazi
437
5.
The Influence of Political Islam in Libya
442
6.
The Political Landscape
449
6.1.
The 2012 Elections
449
6.2.
Election Results
455
6.3.
Demands for Representation
458
6.4.
Drafting the Constitution
461
7.
Conclusion
463
Addendum as of 17 September 2013
469
pt. TWO
THEATERS OF MILITARY OPERATIONS
Introduction to Part Two
479
VI.
Benghazi
485
1.
Introduction
485
2.
Summary of Events
489
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
513
3.1.
Excessive Use of Force
513
3.2.
Unlawful Killing
515
3.3.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
518
3.4.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
521
3.5.
Denial of Access to Medical Treatment
523
3.6.
Freedom of Expression
524
3.7.
Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects
525
3.8.
Prohibited Weapons
526
3.9.
Mercenaries
526
3.10.
Targeting Specific Groups
527
3.11.
Sexual Violence
529
4.
The Role of NATO
529
5.
Conclusion
530
VII.
Ajdabiya & Brega
535
1.
Introduction
535
2.
Summary of Events
537
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
547
3.1.
Excessive Use of Force
547
3.2.
Unlawful Killing
548
3.3.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
548
3.4.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
549
3.5.
Freedom of Expression
549
3.6.
Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects
550
3.7.
Prohibited Weapons
552
3.8.
Mercenaries
553
3.9.
Sexual Violence
554
3.10.
The Use of Children and their Treatment in Armed Conflict
555
4.
The Role of NATO
555
5.
Conclusion
558
VIII.
Ra's Lanuf & Bin Jawad
561
1.
Introduction
561
2.
Summary of Events
563
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
576
3.1.
Excessive Use of Force
576
3.2.
Unlawful Killing
576
3.3.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
577
3.4.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
578
3.5.
Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects
578
3.6.
Mercenaries
580
4.
The Role of NATO
580
5.
Conclusion
582
IX.
Misrata
585
1.
Introduction
585
2.
Summary of Events
588
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
600
3.1.
Excessive Use of Force
600
3.2.
Unlawful Killing
601
3.3.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
604
3.4.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
608
3.5.
Denial of Access to Medical Treatment
612
3.6.
Freedom of Expression
613
3.7.
Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects
613
3.8.
Prohibited Weapons
623
3.9.
Mercenaries
624
3.10.
Targeting Specific Groups
625
3.11.
Sexual Violence
630
3.12.
The Use of Children and Their Treatment in Armed Conflict
633
4.
The Role of NATO
634
5.
Conclusion
636
X.
The Nafusa Mountains
641
1.
Introduction
641
2.
Summary of Events
647
2.1.
Wazin
647
2.2.
Nalut
650
2.3.
Tiji and Badr
653
2.4.
Zintan
654
2.5.
Zawiyyat al-Bajul, Awaniyya and Shayga
661
2.6.
Yafran
661
2.7.
Al-Qala'
663
2.8.
Qawalish
664
2.9.
Kikla
665
2.10.
Bir al-Ghanam
665
2.11.
Al-Gharyan
666
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
668
3.1.
Excessive Use of Force
668
3.2.
Unlawful Killing
668
3.3.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
672
3.4.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
675
3.5.
Denial of Access to Medical Treatment
678
3.6.
Freedom of Expression
679
3.7.
Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects
679
3.8.
Prohibited Weapons
688
3.9.
Targeting Specific Groups
689
3.10.
Sexual Violence
692
3.11.
The Use of Children and Their Treatment in Armed Conflict
692
4.
The Role of NATO
693
5.
Conclusion
696
XI.
Khums
703
1.
Introduction
703
2.
Summary of Events
705
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
706
3.1.
Unlawful Killing
706
3.2.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
709
3.3.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
710
3.4.
Targeting Specific Groups
711
3.5.
Prohibited Weapons
711
4.
The Role of NATO
711
5.
Conclusion
712
XII.
Zawiyya
715
1.
Introduction
715
2.
Summary of Events
717
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
729
3.1.
Excessive Use of Force
729
3.2.
Unlawful Killing
729
3.3.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
731
3.4.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
734
3.5.
Denial of Access to Medical Treatment
735
3.6.
Freedom of Expression
735
3.7.
Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects
737
3.8.
Mercenaries
740
3.9.
Targeting Specific Groups
740
3.10.
Sexual Violence
741
4.
The Role of NATO
742
5.
Conclusion
744
XIII.
Tripoli
747
1.
Introduction
747
2.
Summary of Events
749
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
764
3.1.
Excessive Use of Force
764
3.2.
Unlawful Killing
764
3.3.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
771
3.4.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
780
3.5.
Denial of Access to Medical Treatment
789
3.6.
Freedom of Expression
790
3.7.
Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects
793
3.8.
Mercenaries
796
3.9.
Targeting Specific Groups
797
3.10.
Sexual Violence
799
3.11.
The Use of Children and Their Treatment in Armed Conflict
802
4.
The Role of NATO
804
5.
Conclusion
807
XIV.
Bani Walid
811
1.
Introduction
811
2.
Summary of Events
812
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
830
3.1.
Excessive Use of Force
830
3.2.
Unlawful Killing
830
3.3.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
831
3.4.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
832
3.5.
Denial of Access to Medical Treatment
832
3.6.
Freedom of Expression
832
3.7.
Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects
833
4.
The Role of NATO
834
5.
Conclusion
835
XV.
Sirte
839
1.
Introduction
839
2.
Summary of Events
841
3.
Illustrations of the Violations
847
3.1.
Unlawful Killing
847
3.2.
Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances
849
3.3.
Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment
850
3.4.
Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects
852
3.5.
Prohibited Weapons
854
3.6.
Targeting Specific Groups
854
3.7.
The Use of Children and Their Treatment in Armed Conflict
854
4.
The Role of NATO
854
5.
Conclusion
856
Table of Authorities
859
Books
859
Journal & Book Articles
860
NGO Reports and Statements
862
Periodical Articles
870
UN Documents
913
US Cables and Documents
915
NATO Documents
916
Court Cases
920
International Law Documents
922
Other
924
Index
927