Understanding criminal law / Joshua Dressler, Distinguished University Professor, Frank R. Strong Chair in Law, Michael E. Moritz College of Law, The Ohio State University.
2015
KF9219 .D74 2015 (Map It)
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Author
Title
Understanding criminal law / Joshua Dressler, Distinguished University Professor, Frank R. Strong Chair in Law, Michael E. Moritz College of Law, The Ohio State University.
Published
New Providence, NJ : LexisNexis, [2015]
Call Number
KF9219 .D74 2015
Edition
Seventh edition.
ISBN
9781632838643 (softbound)
1632838648 (softbound)
1632838648 (softbound)
Description
xxxviii, 603, 14, 4, 9 pages ; 25 cm.
System Control No.
(OCoLC)919316412
Note
Includes index.
Bibliography, etc. Note
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Available in Other Form
Online version: Dressler, Joshua, author. Understanding criminal law Seventh edition. New Providence, NJ : LexisNexis, 2015 9781632838650 (DLC) 2015033736
Record Appears in
Gift
Purchased from the income of the Fisch Fund
Gift
The Arthur W. Diamond Law Library
Purchased from the income of the Fisch Fund
Table of Contents
ch. 1
Criminal Law: An Overview
1
1.01.
Nature Of "Criminal Law"
1
A.
Crimes
1
1.
Comparison to Civil Wrongs
1
2.
Classification of Crimes
3
B.
Principles of Criminal Responsibility
3
1.02.
Proving Guilt At The Trial
4
A.
Right to Trial by Jury
4
1.
In General
4
2.
Scope of the Right
4
B.
Burden of Proof
5
C.
Jury Nullification
5
1.
Issue
5
2.
Debate
6
3.
Law
7
4.
Race-Based Nullification
8
ch. 2
Principles Of Criminal Punishment
11
2.01.
"Punishment" And Criminal Law Theory
11
2.02.
"Punishment": Defined
12
A.
In General
12
B.
Constitutional Law Analysis
13
2.03.
Theories Of Punishment
14
A.
Utilitarianism
14
1.
Basic Principles
14
2.
Forms of Utilitarianism
15
B.
Retributivism
16
1.
Basic Principles
16
2.
Forms of Retributivism
17
C.
Denunciation (Expressive Theory)
18
2.04.
Debate Between The Competing Theories
19
A.
Criticisms of Utilitarianism
19
1.
Deterrence
19
2.
Rehabilitation
21
B.
Criticisms of Retributivism
22
2.05.
Mixed Theories Of Punishment
22
2.06.
Sentencing
24
ch. 3
Sources Of The Criminal Law
27
3.01.
Origins Of The Criminal Law
27
A.
Common Law
27
B.
Criminal Statutes
27
3.02.
Modern Role Of The Common Law
28
A.
"Reception" Statutes
28
B.
Statutory Interpretation
29
3.03.
Model Penal Code
30
ch. 4
Constitutional Limits On The Criminal Law
33
4.01.
Constitution: Overview
33
4.02.
Relevant Constitutional Provisions
33
A.
Bill of Rights
33
B.
Fourteenth Amendment
34
4.03.
Policy Factors In Enforcing The Constitution
35
A.
In General
35
B.
Separation of Powers
36
C.
Federalism
36
D.
Protecting Individual Rights
37
ch. 5
Legality
39
5.01.
Principle Of Legality
39
A.
"Legality": Definition
39
B.
Rationale
40
C.
Constitutional Law
41
1.
Bill of Attainder and Ex Post Facto Clauses
41
2.
Due Process Clause
42
5.02.
Statutory Clarity
43
5.03.
Avoiding Undue Discretion In Law Enforcement
45
5.04.
Strict Construction Of Statutes (Rule Of Lenity)
47
ch. 6
Proportionality
49
6.01.
"Proportionality" In The Criminal Law: Overview
49
6.02.
Utilitarianism And Proportionality
50
A.
General Principles
50
B.
Application of the Principles
50
1.
General Deterrence
50
2.
Individual Deterrence or Incapacitation
51
3.
Rehabilitation
52
6.03.
Retributivism And Proportionality
52
A.
General Principles
52
B.
Application of the Principles
52
1.
In General
52
2.
Devising a Proportional Retributive System
53
6.04.
Comparing The Two Theories Of Proportionality
54
6.05.
Constitutional Requirement Of Proportionality
55
A.
General Principles
55
B.
Death Penalty
56
C.
Terms of Imprisonment
59
1.
Rummel v. Estelle
59
2.
Solem v. Helm
61
3.
Harmelin v. Michigan
61
4.
Ewing v. California
63
5.
Summary
64
ch. 7
Burdens Of Proof
67
7.01.
Putting The Issues In Procedural Context
67
7.02.
Burden Of Production
67
A.
Nature of the Burden
67
B.
Who Has the Burden?
68
C.
How Great Is the Burden?
68
D.
Effect of Failing to Meet the Burden
69
7.03.
Burden Of Persuasion
69
A.
Nature of the Burden
69
B.
Who Has the Burden?
70
1.
Presumption of Innocence: The Winship Doctrine (In General)
70
2.
Mullaney v. Wilbur
71
3.
Patterson v. New York
72
4.
Post-Patterson Case Law
73
a.
In General
73
b.
Element of an Offense Versus a Defense
74
C.
How Great Is the Burden?
76
1.
Elements of Crimes: Proof Beyond a Reasonable Doubt
76
2.
Defenses
77
D.
Effect of Failing to Meet the Burden
77
1.
Elements of Crimes
77
2.
Defenses
78
7.04.
Model Penal Code
78
ch. 8
Presumptions
79
8.01.
Nature Of A Presumption
79
8.02.
Mandatory Presumptions
80
A.
Rebuttable Presumptions
80
B.
Irrebuttable ("Conclusive") Presumptions
81
8.03.
Permissive Presumptions ("Inferences")
81
8.04.
Model Penal Code
83
ch. 9
Actus Reus
85
9.01.
Actus Reus: General Principles
85
A.
Definition
85
B.
Punishing Thoughts: Why Not?
86
9.02.
Voluntary Act: General Principles
87
A.
General Rule
87
B.
"Act"
88
C.
"Voluntary"
88
1.
Broad Meaning: In the Context of Defenses
89
2.
Narrow Meaning: In the Context of the Actus Reus
89
3.
"Voluntariness": At the Controversial Edges
91
a.
Hypnotism
91
b.
Multiple Personality (or Dissociative Identity) Disorder
92
D.
Voluntary Act Requirement: Rationale
93
E.
Burden of Proof
93
F.
Issue of "Time-Framing"
94
9.03.
Voluntary Act: Supposed (But Not Real) Exceptions To The Requirement
96
A.
Poorly Drafted Statutes
96
B.
Status Offenses
97
C.
Crimes of Possession
97
9.04.
Voluntary Act: Constitutional Law
98
A.
Robinson v. California
98
B.
Powell v. Texas
99
C.
Current Law: Powell in Light of Robinson
100
9.05.
Voluntary Act: Model Penal Code
101
A.
General Principles
101
B.
Exception to the Rule
102
9.06.
Omissions: General Principles
102
A.
General Rule
102
B.
Criticisms of the General Rule
103
C.
Defense of the General Rule
104
9.07.
Omissions: Exceptions To The No-Liability Rule
106
A.
Common Law Duty to Act: "Commission by Omission"
106
1.
Overview
106
2.
When There Is a Duty to Act
107
a.
Status Relationship
107
b.
Contractual Obligation
107
c.
Omissions Following an Act
107
i.
Creation of a Risk
107
ii.
Voluntary Assistance
108
B.
Statutory Duty (Including "Bad Samaritan" Laws)
108
9.08.
Omissions: Model Penal Code
109
9.09.
Medical "Omissions": A Definitional Problem
110
A.
Act or Omission?
110
B.
Analysis as an Omission
110
C.
Barber Approach
111
D.
Reflections Regarding Barber
112
9.10.
Social Harm: General Principles
112
A.
Overview
112
B.
Definition of "Social Harm"
113
C.
Finding the "Social Harm" Element in a Criminal Statute
114
D.
Dividing "Social Harm" into Sub-Elements
114
1.
"Conduct" Elements (or "Conduct" Crimes)
114
2.
"Result" Elements (or "Result" Crimes)
115
3.
Attendant Circumstances
115
9.11.
Social Harm: Constitutional Limits
116
ch. 10
Mens Rea
117
10.01.
General Principle
117
10.02.
Definition Of "Mens Rea"
118
A.
Ambiguity of the Term
118
B.
Broad Meaning: The "Culpability" Meaning of "Mens Rea"
118
C.
Narrow Meaning: The "Elemental" Meaning of "Mens Rea"
119
10.03.
Rationale Of The Mens Rea Requirement
120
A.
Utilitarian Arguments
120
B.
Retributive Arguments
120
10.04.
Frequently Used Mens Rea Terms
121
A.
"Intentionally"
121
1.
Definition
121
2.
"Motive" Distinguished
123
3.
"Transferred Intent"
124
a.
General Doctrine
124
b.
Unnecessary and Potentially Misleading Doctrine
125
c.
Looking Past the Easy Cases
126
B.
"Knowingly" or "With Knowledge"
128
C.
"Willfully"
130
D.
"Negligence" and "Recklessness"
131
1.
Overview
131
2.
"Negligence"
131
a.
In General
131
b.
Distinguishing Civil from Criminal Negligence
132
c.
Should Negligence Be Punished?
133
d.
Who Really Is the "Reasonable Person"?: Initial Observations
134
3.
"Recklessness"
135
E.
"Malice"
136
10.05.
Statutory Interpretation: What Elements Does A Mens Rea Term Modify?
137
10.06.
"Specific Intent' And "General Intent"
138
10.07.
Model Penal Code
140
A.
Section 2.02: In General
140
B.
Culpability Terms
141
1.
"Purposely"
141
2.
"Knowingly"
142
3.
"Recklessly" and "Negligently"
143
a.
In General
143
b.
Nature of the "Reasonable Person"
144
C.
Principles of Statutory Interpretation
144
ch. 11
Strict Liability
147
11.01.
General Principles
147
A.
"Strict Liability": Definition
147
B.
Presumption Against Strict Liability
147
C.
Public Welfare Offenses
149
D.
Non-Public-Welfare Offenses
150
11.02.
Policy Debate Regarding Strict-Liability Offenses .
150
A.
Searching for a Justification for Strict Liability
150
B.
Alternatives to Strict Liability
151
11.03.
Constitutionality Of Strict-Liability Offenses
152
11.04.
Model Penal Code
153
ch. 12
Mistakes Of Fact
155
12.01.
Putting Mistake-Of-Fact In Context
155
12.02.
Why Does A Factual Mistake Sometimes Exculpate?
156
12.03.
Common Law Rules
157
A.
General Approach
157
B.
Strict-Liability Offenses
158
C.
Specific-Intent Offenses
158
D.
General-Intent Offenses
159
1.
Ordinary Approach: Was the Mistake Reasonable?
159
2.
Another (Controversial and Increasingly Uncommon) Approach: Moral-Wrong Doctrine
160
a.
Doctrine Is Explained
160
b.
Criticisms of the Doctrine
162
3.
Still Another Approach: Legal-Wrong Doctrine
163
a.
Doctrine Is Explained
163
b.
Criticism of the Doctrine
163
E.
Regina v. Morgan: Common Law in Transition or an Aberration?
164
12.04.
Model Penal Code
165
A.
General Rule
165
B.
Exception to the Rule
166
ch. 13
Mistakes Of Law
167
13.01.
General Principles
167
A.
General Rule
167
B.
Rationale of the Rule
168
1.
Certainty of the Law
168
2.
Avoiding Subjectivity in the Law
169
3.
Deterring Fraud
169
4.
Encouraging Legal Knowledge
170
13.02.
When Mistake-Of-Law Is A Defense: Exceptions To The General Rule
170
A.
Putting the Exceptions in Context
170
B.
Reasonable-Reliance Doctrine (Entrapment by Estoppel)
171
1.
No Defense: Reliance on One's Own Interpretation of the Law
171
2.
No Defense: Advice of Private Counsel
172
3.
Faulty Interpretation of the Law by the Government
173
C.
Fair Notice and the Lambert Principle
174
D.
Ignorance or Mistake That Negates Mens Rea
176
1.
General Approach
176
2.
Specific-Intent Offenses
177
3.
General-Intent Offenses
178
4.
Strict-Liability Offenses
178
13.03.
Model Penal Code
178
A.
General Rule
178
B.
Exceptions to the General Rule
179
1.
Reasonable-Reliance Doctrine
179
2.
Fair Notice
179
3.
Ignorance or Mistake That Negates Mens Rea
179
ch. 14
Causation
181
14.01.
General Principles
181
A.
"Causation": An Element of Criminal Responsibility
181
B.
"Causation": Its Role in Criminal Law Theory
182
C.
"Causation": Criminal Law Versus Tort Law
183
14.02.
Actual Cause (Or "Factual Cause")
184
A.
"But-For" ("Sine Qua Non") Test
184
B.
"Causes" Versus "Conditions"
185
C.
Special "Actual Cause" Problems
185
1.
Confusing "Causation" with "Mens Rea"
185
a.
Causation Without Mens Rea
185
b.
Mens Rea Without Causation
186
2.
Multiple Actual Causes
186
a.
Accelerating a Result
186
b.
Concurrent Sufficient Causes
187
3.
Obstructed Cause
188
14.03.
Proximate Cause (Or "Legal Cause")
189
A.
Putting "Proximate Cause" in Context
189
B.
Direct Cause
190
C.
Intervening Causes
190
1.
Overview
190
2.
Factor 1: De Minimis Contribution to the Social Harm
191
3.
Factor 2: Foreseeability of the Intervening Cause
191
a.
In General
191
b.
Responsive (Dependent) Intervening Causes
192
c.
Coincidental (Independent) Intervening Causes
193
4.
Factor 3: The Defendant's Mens Mea (Intended Consequences Doctrine)
193
5.
Factor 4: Dangerous Forces That Come to Rest (Apparent Safety Doctrine)
194
6.
Factor 5: Free, Deliberate, Informed Human Intervention
195
7.
Factor 6: Omissions
196
14.04.
Model Penal Code
196
A.
Actual Cause
196
B.
Proximate Cause (Actually, Culpability)
197
ch. 15
Concurrence Of Elements
199
15.01.
General Principles
199
15.02.
Temporal Concurrence
199
A.
Mens Rea Preceding Actus Reus
199
B.
Actus Reus Preceding Mens Rea
200
15.03.
Motivational Concurrence
200
15.04.
Special Problem: Temporally Divisible Acts And/or Omissions
201
ch. 16
Defenses: An Overview
203
16.01.
Defenses: In Context
203
16.02.
Failure-Of-Proof Defenses
204
16.03.
Justification Defenses
204
16.04.
Excuse Defenses
205
16.05.
Specialized Defenses ("Offense Modifications")
205
16.06.
Extrinsic Defenses ("Nonexculpatory Defenses")
206
ch. 17
Justifications And Excuses
207
17.01.
Historical Overview
207
17.02.
Underlying Theories Of "Justification"
208
A.
Searching for an Explanatory Theory
208
B.
"Public Benefit" Theory
209
C.
"Moral Forfeiture" Theory
209
D.
"Moral Rights" Theory
210
E.
"Superior Interest" (or "Lesser Harm") Theory
211
17.03.
Underlying Theories Of "Excuse"
211
A.
Searching for an Explanatory Theory y.
211
B.
Deterrence Theory
212
C.
Causation Theory
213
D.
Character Theory
213
E.
"Free Choice" (or Personhood) Theory
214
17.04.
Justification Defenses And Mistake-Of-Fact Claims
215
A.
General Rule
215
B.
Criticisms of the General Rule
216
C.
Defense of the General Rule
217
17.05.
Justification V. Excuse: Why Does It Matter?
218
A.
In General
218
B.
Sending Clear Moral Messages
218
C.
Providing Theoretical Consistency in the Criminal Law
218
D.
Accomplice Liability
219
E.
Third Party Conduct
219
F.
Retroactivity
220
G.
Burden of Proof
220
ch. 18
Self-Defense
223
18.01.
General Principles
223
A.
Overview
223
B.
Elements of the Defense
223
C.
Necessity Component
224
D.
Proportionality Component
224
E.
"Reasonable Belief' Component
224
18.02.
Deadly Force: Clarification Of The General Principles
225
A.
"Deadly Force": Definition
225
B.
"Non-Aggressor" Limitation
226
1.
Definition of "Aggressor"
226
2.
Removing the Status of "Aggressor"
227
a.
Deadly Aggressor
227
b.
Nondeadly Aggressor
227
C.
Necessity Requirement: The Special Issue of Retreat
228
1.
Explanation of the Issue
228
2.
Contrasting Approaches
229
3.
"Castle" Exception to the Retreat Rule
230
D.
Nature of the Threat: "Imminent, Unlawful Deadly Force"
232
1.
"Imminent"
232
2.
"Unlawful Force"
234
18.03.
Deadly Force: "Imperfect' Self-Defense Claims
234
18.04.
Deadly Force In Self-Protection: Rationale For The Defense
235
A.
Self-Defense as an Excuse
235
B.
Self-Defense as a Justification
236
1.
Utilitarian Explanations
236
2.
Non-Utilitarian Explanations
237
18.05.
Self-Defense: Special Issues
238
A.
Reasonable-Belief Standard: More Reflections About the "Reasonable Person"
238
1.
Issue
238
2.
Law
240
B.
Battered Women and "Battered Woman Syndrome"
242
1.
Issue Overview
242
2.
Jury Instructions on Self-Defense
244
3.
Evidentiary Issues
244
a.
Prior Abuse by the Decedent
244
b.
Expert Testimony Regarding Battered Woman Syndrome
245
4.
Nonconfrontational Battered Woman Self-Defense?: Some Reflections
247
C.
Risk to Innocent Bystanders
249
D.
Resisting an Unlawful Arrest
250
18.06.
Model Penal Code
252
A.
General Rules
252
1.
Force, in General
252
a.
Permissible Use
252
b.
Impermissible Use: Resisting an Unlawful Arrest
253
2.
Deadly Force, in General
253
a.
"Deadly Force": Definition
253
b.
Permissible Use
253
c.
Impermissible Use
254
i.
Deadly Force by Aggressors
254
ii.
Retreat
254
iii.
Summarizing the MPC Deadly-Force Rules
254
B.
Mistake-of-Fact Claims and Model Penal Code Justification Defenses
255
C.
Justification Defenses and Risks to Innocent Bystanders
256
ch. 19
Defense Of Others
257
19.01.
General Rule
257
19.02.
Model Penal Code
258
ch. 20
Defense Of Property And Habitation
261
20.01.
Property And Habitation: Comparison And Contrast
261
20.02.
Defense Of Property
261
A.
General Rule
261
B.
Clarification of the Rule
262
1.
Possession Versus Title to Property
262
2.
Necessity for the Use of Force
262
3.
Deadly Force
262
4.
Threat to Use Deadly Force
263
5.
Claim of Right
263
6.
Recapture of Property
264
20.03.
Defense Of Habitation
264
A.
Rationale of the Defense
264
B.
Rules Regarding Use of Deadly Force
265
1.
Early Common Law Rule
265
2.
"Middle" Approach
266
3.
"Narrow" Approach
266
C.
Looking at the Rules in Greater Depth
267
1.
May the Occupant Use Force After the Intruder Has Entered?
267
2.
Are the Differences in the Habitation Rules Significant?
267
3.
Relationship of the Defense to Other Defenses
268
a.
Self-Defense and Defense-of-Others
268
b.
Law Enforcement Defenses
268
20.04.
Spring Guns
268
A.
Issue
268
B.
Common Law Rule
269
20.05.
Model Penal Code
270
A.
Permissible Use of Nondeadly Force
270
1.
Force to Protect Property
270
2.
Force to Recapture Property
271
B.
Impermissible Use of Nondeadly Force
271
C.
Use of Deadly Force
272
1.
In General
272
a.
Dispossession of a Dwelling
272
b.
Prevention of Serious Property Crimes
273
2.
Spring Guns
274
ch. 21
Law Enforcement
275
21.01.
What Are The "Law Enforcement" Defenses?
275
21.02.
Restraint On Liberty In Law Enforcement: "Public Authority" Defense
276
A.
By Police Officers
276
1.
Common Law
276
2.
Constitutional Limits on the Common Law
276
B.
By Private Persons
276
21.03.
Force Used In Law Enforcement: Common And Statutory Law
277
A.
Nondeadly Force
277
B.
Deadly Force
278
1.
Crime Prevention
278
a.
Broad Defense: Minority Rule
278
b.
Narrow Defense: Majority Rule
278
2.
Effectuation of an Arrest
279
a.
By Police Officers
279
i.
Early Common Law Rule
279
ii.
Modification of the Rule
279
b.
By Private Persons
279
21.04.
Force Used In Law Enforcement: Constitutional Limits
280
A.
Background: The Controversy
280
B.
Constitutional Law
281
21.05.
Model Penal Code
283
A.
Authority to Arrest
283
B.
Crime Prevention
284
1.
Use of Force, In General
284
2.
Use of Deadly Force
284
C.
Effectuation of an Arrest
285
1.
Use of Force, In General
285
2.
Use of Deadly Force
285
ch. 22
Necessity
287
22.01.
Basic Nature Of The Defense
287
22.02.
General Rules
289
22.03.
Civil Disobedience
292
22.04.
"Necessity" As A Defense To Homicide
293
A.
Issue
293
B.
Regina v. Dudley and Stephens
294
C.
What Does Dudley and Stephens Really Say?
296
D.
How Should Dudley and Stephens Have Been Decided?
297
22.05.
Model Penal Code
298
ch. 23
Duress
299
23.01.
General Principles
299
A.
Overview
299
B.
Elements of the Defense
299
C.
Duress: Justification or Excuse?
301
23.02.
Rationale Of The Defense (As An Excuse)
302
A.
Utilitarian Arguments
302
B.
Retributive Arguments
303
23.03.
Distinguishing Duress From Necessity
304
23.04.
Duress As A Defense To Homicide
305
A.
General Rule
305
B.
Is the No-Defense Rule Sensible?
306
23.05.
Escape From Intolerable Prison Conditions
307
A.
Issue
307
B.
Law
308
C.
Necessity Versus Duress
309
1.
Conceptual Problem
309
2.
Why the Nature of the Defense Is Significant
309
a.
Message of Acquittal
309
b.
Ability of the Defendant to Obtain Acquittal
309
c.
Liability of Those Who Assist in the Escape
310
d.
Liability of Those Who Resist the Escape
310
3.
Concluding Comments
311
23.06.
Situational Duress: Brief Observations
311
A.
Simplest Case: Necessity as an Excuse
311
B.
Going Beyond Natural Threats
312
23.07.
Battered Women Under Duress
313
23.08.
Model Penal Code
315
A.
General Rule
315
B.
Comparison to the Common Law
315
1.
In General
315
2.
Escape from Intolerable Prison Conditions
316
3.
"Situational Duress"
316
4.
Battered Women and the Nature of the "Person of Reasonable Firmness"
317
ch. 24
Intoxication
319
24.01.
Intoxication And The Criminal Law: An Overview
319
A.
"Intoxication": Definition
319
B.
Intoxication Law in Its Social and Historical Context
319
C.
Intoxication Cases: Issues to Consider
320
D.
Intoxication Claims: Relationship to Other Defenses
320
24.02.
Voluntary Intoxication: General Principles
321
A.
Definition of "Voluntary Intoxication"
321
1.
In General
321
2.
Alcoholism, Drug Addiction, and "Voluntary Intoxication"
322
B.
General Rules
322
1.
No Excuse
322
2.
When Voluntary Intoxication May Be Exculpatory
323
24.03.
Voluntary Intoxication: Mens Rea
323
A.
In General
323
B.
Traditional Common Law Rule
324
1.
Overview
324
2.
General-Intent Offenses
324
3.
Specific-Intent Offenses
325
4.
Criticism of the Traditional Approach
325
a.
Why Draw a Distinction?
325
b.
Should the Defense Be Abolished?
326
C.
Special Problem: Intoxication and Homicide
327
24.04.
Voluntary Intoxication: Voluntary Act
328
24.05.
Voluntary Intoxication: Insanity
328
A.
"Temporary" Insanity
328
B.
"Fixed" ("Settled") Insanity
329
24.06.
Involuntary Intoxication
330
A.
Definition
330
B.
General Rule
331
24.07.
Model Penal Code
331
A.
General Rule
331
B.
Negation of an Element of an Offense
332
1.
Mental State
332
a.
In General
332
b.
Exception to the Rule
332
2.
Voluntary Act
333
C.
Intoxication as an Affirmative Defense
333
ch. 25
Insanity
335
25.01.
Insanity: An Overview
335
25.02.
Insanity Defense: Procedural Context
336
A.
Competency to Stand Trial
336
1.
General Rule
336
2.
Procedures for Determining Competency
337
3.
Effect of an Incompetency Finding
337
B.
Pre-Trial Assertion of the Insanity Plea
338
C.
Jury Verdicts
339
D.
Bifurcated Trial
339
E.
Burden of Proof
340
25.03.
Rationale Of The Insanity Defense
341
A.
Utilitarian Theory
341
B.
Retributive Theory
341
25.04.
Definitions Of "Insanity"
343
A.
Putting the Insanity Tests in Historical and Legal Context
343
B.
"Mental Disease or Defect"
345
1.
In General
345
2.
Medical Definition of "Mental Disorder"
345
3.
Legal Definition of "Mental Disease or Defect"
345
C.
Tests
346
1.
M'Naghten Test
346
a.
Rule
346
i.
"Know": Broad or Narrow?
346
ii.
"Nature and Quality of the Act"
346
iii.
"Right from Wrong"
347
iv.
"Deific Decree" Doctrine
348
b.
Criticisms of the Rule
348
2.
"Irresistible Impulse" ("Control") Test
349
a.
Rule
349
b.
Criticisms of the Rule
349
3.
American Law Institute (Model Penal Code) Test
350
a.
Rule
350
b.
Criticisms of the Rule
351
4.
Product Test
351
a.
Rule
351
5.
Federal Test
352
25.05.
Effect Of An Insanity Acquittal
353
A.
Mental Illness Commitment Procedures
353
1.
Automatic Commitment
353
2.
Discretionary Commitment
354
B.
Release After Commitment for Mental Illness
354
1.
Criteria for Release
354
2.
Length of Confinement
354
3.
Release Procedures
355
C.
Different Form of Commitment: Sexual Predator Laws
355
25.06.
Abolition Of The Insanity Defense
356
A.
Abolitionist Arguments
356
1.
Abuse
356
2.
Counter-Deterrence
357
3.
Conflict of Perspectives
358
4.
"Mental Illness": Merely a Deviation from a Cultural Norm
358
5.
Equity
359
B.
Legislative Efforts to Abolish the Defense
359
25.07.
"Guilty But Mentally Ill"
361
ch. 26
Diminished Capacity
363
26.01.
"Diminished Capacity": A Term Of Confusion
363
26.02.
Diminished Capacity: Mens Rea Defense
364
A.
Nature of the Defense
364
B.
Law
365
1.
Overview
365
2.
Defense-to-All-Crimes (Model Penal Code) Approach
365
3.
Limited-Use Approach
366
4.
No-Defense Approach
367
26.03.
Diminished Capacity: "Partial Responsibility" Defense
369
A.
Rule
369
1.
In General
369
2.
Largely Discredited California Approach
369
3.
Model Penal Code Approach
371
B.
Controversy Regarding the Defense
372
ch. 27
Attempt
375
27.01.
Criminal Attempts: An Overview To Inchoate Conduct
375
27.02.
General Principles
376
A.
Historical Background
376
B.
Definition of "Attempt"
376
C.
Punishment of Attempts
377
D.
Relationship of an Attempt to the Target Offense
377
E.
"Assault": "Attempt" in Different Clothing
378
1.
"Assault" Versus "Attempt"
378
2.
Attempted Assault
379
F.
Inchoate Crimes in Disguise
379
27.03.
"Subjectivism" And "Objectivism"
380
27.04.
Punishing Attempts: Why, And How Much?
383
A.
Rationale for Punishing Attempts
383
1.
Utilitarian Analysis
383
2.
Retributive Analysis
384
B.
Less or Equal Punishment?
384
1.
Overview to the Issue
384
2.
Utilitarian Analysis
385
3.
Retributive Analysis
385
27.05.
Mens Rea Of Criminal Attempts
386
A.
General Rule
386
B.
"Result" Crimes
387
1.
In General
387
2.
Rationale of Intent Requirement: Does It Make Sense?
388
3.
Special Homicide Problems
389
a.
Attempted Felony-Murder
389
b.
Attempted Manslaughter
390
C.
"Conduct" Crimes
390
D.
Attendant Circumstances
390
27.06.
Actus Reus Of Criminal Attempts
391
A.
Policy Context
391
B.
Tests
393
1.
General Observations
393
2.
"Last Act" Test
394
3.
"Physical Proximity" Test
394
4.
"Dangerous Proximity" Test
395
5.
"Indispensable Element" Test
396
6.
"Probable Desistance" Test
396
7.
"Unequivocality" Test
397
27.07.
Defense: Impossibility
398
A.
Issue
398
B.
General Rule
400
C.
Factual Impossibility
400
1.
In General
400
2.
"Inherent" Factual Impossibility
401
D.
Legal Impossibility
402
1.
Introductory Comments
402
2.
Pure Legal Impossibility
402
3.
Hybrid Legal Impossibility
403
a.
In General
403
b.
Modern Approach: Abolition of the Defense
405
27.08.
Defense: Abandonment
406
27.09.
Model Penal Code
408
A.
Introductory Comments
408
B.
Criminal Attempt: In General
408
1.
Elements of the Offense
408
2.
Explaining Subsection (1)
409
C.
Mens Rea
409
D.
Actus Reus
410
1.
In General
410
2.
Attempt to Aid
411
E.
Defenses
412
1.
Impossibility
412
a.
Hybrid Legal Impossibility
412
b.
Pure Legal Impossibility
413
2.
Renunciation (Abandonment)
413
F.
Grading of Criminal Attempts and Other Inchoate Crimes
414
1.
In General
414
2.
Special Mitigation
415
ch. 28
Solicitation
417
28.01.
General Principles
417
A.
Definition
417
1.
In General
417
2.
Mens Rea
417
3.
Actus Reus
418
B.
Relationship of the Solicitor to the Solicited Party
419
1.
In General
419
2.
Use of an Innocent Instrumentality
419
C.
Relationship of a Solicitation to the Target Offense
420
D.
Policy Considerations
420
28.02.
Comparison Of Solicitation To Other Inchoate Offenses
421
A.
Conspiracy
421
B.
Criminal Attempt
421
28.03.
Model Penal Code
423
A.
In General
423
B.
Defense: Renunciation
424
ch. 29
Conspiracy
425
29.01.
Conspiracy: In General
425
A.
Common Law
425
B.
Model Penal Code
426
29.02.
Punishing Conspiracies: Why?
427
A.
"Conspiracy" as an Inchoate Offense: Preventive Law Enforcement
427
B.
Special Dangers of Group Criminality
427
29.03.
Punishing Conspiracies: How Much?
428
A.
In General
428
1.
Common Law and Non-Model Penal Code Statutes
428
2.
Model Penal Code
428
B.
Punishment When the Target Offense Is Committed
429
1.
Common Law
429
2.
Model Penal Code
429
29.04.
Conspiracy: The Agreement
430
A.
In General
430
B.
Distinguishing the Agreement from the Group That Agrees
432
C.
Object of the Agreement
433
D.
Overt Act
434
E.
Model Penal Code
435
1.
In General
435
2.
Object of the Agreement
435
3.
Overt Act
435
29.05.
Conspiracy: Mens Rea
436
A.
In General
436
B.
Special Issues
436
1.
"Purpose" Versus "Knowledge": The Meaning of "Intent"
436
2.
Mens Rea Regarding Attendant Circumstances
438
3.
Corrupt-Motive Doctrine
440
C.
Model Penal Code
441
29.06.
"Plurality" Requirement
442
A.
Common Law
442
B.
Model Penal Code
444
29.07.
Parties To A Conspiracy
445
A.
Issue
445
1.
Kotteakos v. United States
445
2.
Blumenthal v. United States
445
3.
United States v. Peoni
445
4.
United States v. Bruno
446
B.
Why the Issue Matters
446
1.
Liability for Conspiracy
446
2.
Liability of Parties for Substantive Offenses
446
3.
Use of Hearsay Evidence
447
4.
Joint Trial
447
5.
Overt-Act Requirement
448
6.
Venue
448
C.
Structure of Conspiracies
448
1.
Wheel Conspiracies
448
2.
Chain Conspiracies
449
3.
Chain-Wheel Conspiracies
449
D.
Common Law Analysis
449
1.
In General
449
2.
Wheel Conspiracies
450
3.
Chain Conspiracies
451
4.
Chain-Wheel Conspiracies
451
E.
Model Penal Code
451
1.
Relevant Provisions
451
2.
Example of the Code Approach: United States v. Bruno
452
29.08.
Objectives Of A Conspiracy
453
A.
Issue
453
B.
Common Law Analysis
454
C.
Model Penal Code
454
29.09.
Defenses
455
A.
Impossibility
455
1.
Common Law
455
2.
Model Penal Code
455
B.
Abandonment (or "Withdrawal")
456
1.
Common Law
456
2.
Model Penal Code
456
C.
Wharton's Rule
457
1.
Common Law
457
a.
In General
457
b.
Exceptions to the Rule
458
2.
Model Penal Code
459
D.
Legislative-Exemption Rule
459
1.
Common Law
459
2.
Model Penal Code
460
ch. 30
Liability For The Acts Of Others: Complicity
461
30.01.
Complicity: Overview To Accomplice And Conspiratorial Liability
461
30.02.
Accomplice Liability: General Principles
462
A.
General Rules
462
1.
Definition of an "Accomplice"
462
2.
Criminal Responsibility of an Accomplice: Derivative Liability
462
B.
Theoretical Foundations of Accomplice Liability
463
30.03.
Accomplice Liability: Common Law Terminology
464
A.
Parties to a Felony
464
1.
General Comments
464
2.
Principal in the First Degree
464
a.
In General
464
b.
Innocent-Instrumentality Rule
464
i.
In General
464
ii.
Difficulty in Application of the Rule: "Nonproxyable" Offenses
465
3.
Principal in the Second Degree
466
4.
Accessory Before the Fact
467
5.
Accessory After the Fact
467
B.
Principals Versus Accessories: Procedural Significance
468
1.
General Comments
468
2.
Jurisdiction
468
3.
Rules of Pleading
468
4.
Timing of the Trial of Accessories
469
5.
Effect of the Acquittal of a Principal
469
6.
Degree of Guilt of the Parties
469
30.04.
Accomplice Liability: Assistance
469
A.
Types of Assistance
469
1.
In General
469
2.
Physical Conduct
470
3.
Psychological Influence
470
4.
Assistance by Omission
471
B.
Amount of Assistance Required
471
1.
In General
471
2.
Accomplice Liability and the Doctrine of Causation
472
a.
Law
472
b.
Criticism of the Law
473
30.05.
Accomplice Liability: Mens Rea
474
A.
In General
474
B.
Significant Mens Rea Issues
475
1.
Feigning Accomplice
475
2.
"Purpose" Versus "Knowledge": The Meaning of "Intent"
476
3.
Liability for Crimes of Recklessness and Negligence
478
4.
Attendant Circumstances
479
5.
Natural-and-Probable-Consequences Doctrine
479
30.06.
Liability Of The Secondary Party In Relation To The Primary Party
481
A.
General Principles
481
B.
Liability When the Primary Party Is Acquitted
482
1.
"Primary Party" as an Innocent Instrumentality
482
2.
Acquittal on the Basis of a Defense
482
a.
Justification Defenses
482
b.
Excuse Defenses
483
3.
Acquittal on the Basis of Lack of Mens Rea
484
a.
In General
484
b.
Special Problem: The Feigning Primary Party
485
C.
Liability of an Accomplice When the Primary Party Is Convicted
486
30.07.
Limits To Accomplice Liability
488
A.
Legislative-Exemption Rule
488
B.
Abandonment
489
30.08.
Conspiratorial Liability: The Pinkerton Doctrine
489
A.
"Accomplice" Versus "Conspiratorial" Liability
489
B.
Rule of Conspiratorial Liability
490
C.
Comparison of Liability
491
30.09.
Model Penal Code
492
A.
Forms of Liability
492
1.
In General
492
2.
Accountability Through an Innocent Instrumentality
492
3.
Miscellaneous Accountability
493
4.
Accomplice Accountability
493
5.
Rejection of Conspiratorial Liability
494
B.
Nature of an "Accomplice"
494
1.
Conduct
494
a.
In General
494
b.
Accomplice Liability by Solicitation
494
c.
Accomplice Liability by Aiding
494
d.
Accomplice Liability by Agreeing to Aid
494
e.
Accomplice Liability by Attempting to Aid
495
i.
In General
495
ii.
Relationship of [§] 2.06 (Complicity) to [§] 5.01 (Criminal Attempt)
495
f.
Accomplice Liability by Omission
496
2.
Mental State
496
a.
In General
496
b.
Liability for Crimes of Recklessness and Negligence
497
c.
Attendant Circumstances
498
d.
Natural-and-Probable-Consequences Doctrine
498
C.
Liability of the Accomplice in Relation to the Perpetrator
498
D.
Limits to Accomplice Liability
499
ch. 31
Criminal Homicide
501
31.01.
Homicide
501
A.
Definition of "Homicide"
501
B.
Definition of "Human Being"
501
1.
Beginning of Human Life
501
2.
End of Human Life
502
C.
Year-and-a-Day Rule
503
31.02.
Criminal Homicide: General Principles
504
A.
"Murder" and "Manslaughter": Common Law Definitions
504
B.
Murder: Definition of "Malice Aforethought"
505
1.
"Aforethought"
505
2.
"Malice"
505
C.
Manslaughter: Types of "Unlawful Killings"
506
D.
Statutory Reformulation of Criminal Homicide Law
506
1.
In General
506
2.
Division of Murder into Degrees ("Pennsylvania Model")
507
31.03.
Murder: Intent To Kill
508
A.
In General
508
B.
Proving the Intent to Kill
508
1.
In General
508
a.
Natural-and-Probable-Consequences Rule
508
b.
Deadly-Weapon Rule
509
2.
Constitutional Limitation
509
C.
"Wilful, Deliberate, Premeditated" Killings
509
1.
Overview of the Issue
509
2.
"Deliberate"
511
3.
"Premeditated"
512
31.04.
Murder: Intent To Inflict Grievous Bodily Injury
513
31.05.
Murder: "Depraved Heart" ("Extreme Recklessness") Murder
514
A.
In General
514
1.
Terminology
514
2.
Facts Supporting a Finding of "Depraved Heart" Murder
515
B.
Distinguishing Murder from Manslaughter
516
31.06.
Murder: Felony-Murder Rule
517
A.
Rule
517
B.
Rationale of the Rule
518
1.
Initial Observations
518
2.
Deterrence
519
3.
Reaffirming the Sanctity of Human Life
519
4.
Transferred Intent
520
5.
Easing the Prosecutor's Burden of Proof
521
C.
Limits on the Rule
521
1.
Inherently-Dangerous-Felony Limitation
521
2.
Independent Felony (or Merger) Limitation
523
3.
Res Gestae Requirement
525
a.
Overview
525
b.
Time and Distance Requirements
525
c.
Causation Requirement
526
4.
Killing by a Non-Felon
527
a.
Issue
527
b.
"Agency" Approach
527
c.
"Proximate Causation" Approach
528
i.
In General
528
ii.
Limited Version
528
d.
Distinguishing Felony-Murder from Other Theories (The "Provocative Act" Doctrine)
529
31.07.
Manslaughter: Provocation ("Sudden Heat Of Passion")
530
A.
In General
530
B.
Elements of the Defense
531
1.
State of Passion
531
2.
Adequate Provocation
531
a.
Early Common Law Categories
531
b.
Modern Law
532
i.
In General
532
ii.
Nature of the "Reasonable Person"
534
3.
Cooling off Time
536
4.
Causal Connection
537
C.
Rationale of the Defense
537
1.
Partial Justification or Partial Excuse?: Initial Inquiry
537
2.
Justification or Excuse: A Deeper Look
538
a.
Argument for Provocation as a Partial Justification
538
b.
Argument for Provocation as a Partial Excuse
539
3.
Criticism of the Provocation Doctrine
540
31.08.
Manslaughter: Criminal Negligence
541
31.09.
Manslaughter: Unlawful-Act (Misdemeanor-Manslaughter) Doctrine
542
31.10.
Criminal Homicide: Model Penal Code
543
A.
In General
543
B.
Murder
543
C.
Manslaughter
544
1.
In General
544
2.
Reckless Homicide
544
3.
Extreme Mental or Emotional Disturbance
545
a.
In General
545
b.
Comparison of Model Code to Common Law "Heat-of-Passion"
546
D.
Negligent Homicide
547
ch. 32
Theft
549
32.01.
Theft: Historical Overview
549
32.02.
Larceny: General Principles
550
A.
Definition
550
B.
Grading of the Offense
551
32.03.
Larceny: Trespass
551
32.04.
Larceny: Taking (Caption)
552
A.
Significance of "Possession"
552
B.
"Custody" Versus "Possession"
553
1.
In General
553
2.
Temporary and Limited Use of Property
553
3.
Employers and Employees
554
a.
Employer to Employee
554
b.
Third Person to the Employee for the Employer
554
4.
Bailors and Bailees
555
5.
Fraud
556
32.05.
Larceny: Carrying Away (Asportation)
557
32.06.
Larceny: Personal Property Of Another
558
A.
Personal Property
558
1.
Land and Attachments Thereto
558
2.
Animals
559
3.
Stolen Property and Contraband
559
4.
Intangible Personal Property
560
B.
Of Another
560
32.07.
Larceny: Intent To Steal (Animus Furandi)
561
A.
Nature of the Felonious Intent
561
1.
In General
561
2.
Recklessly Depriving Another of Property Permanently
561
B.
Concurrence of Mens Rea and Actus Reus
562
1.
In General
562
2.
Continuing-Trespass Doctrine
562
C.
Claim of Right
563
1.
In General
563
2.
Forced Sale
564
32.08.
Larceny: Lost And Mislaid Property
564
32.09.
Embezzlement
565
A.
Historical Background
565
B.
Elements of the Offense
566
C.
Distinguishing Larceny from Embezzlement
566
32.10.
False Pretenses
567
A.
In General
567
B.
Distinguishing False Pretenses from Larceny and Embezzlement
568
C.
Elements of the Offense
568
1.
False Representation
568
2.
Existing Fact
569
a.
Fact Versus Opinion
569
b.
Fact versus Promise of Future Conduct
569
3.
Mens Rea
570
32.11.
Consolidation Of Theft Offenses
570
ch. 33
Rape (Sexual Assault)
573
33.01.
Rape: General Principles
573
A.
Definition: Common Law
573
B.
Statutes: Traditional and Reform
574
C.
Grading of the Offense
575
33.02.
Statistics Regarding Rape
575
33.03.
Social Attitudes Regarding Rape
576
A.
Social Harm of Rape
576
1.
Original Perspective
576
2.
Modem Perspective
577
B.
Perceptions of the Seriousness of the Offense
578
1.
In General
578
2.
Blaming the Victim
578
3.
Victim's Relationship to Rapist
579
33.04.
Rape: Actus Reus
580
A.
In General
580
B.
Forcible Rape
580
1.
Traditional Law
580
a.
Overview
580
b.
Lack of Consent: Issues to Consider
581
c.
Force and Resistance
582
d.
Threat of Force Versus Fear of Force
583
e.
Cases Applying the Traditional Doctrine
584
2.
Law in Transition
585
a.
Resistance Requirement
585
b.
"Force": Changing Its Definition (or Abolishing the Requirement)
587
C.
Fraud
590
33.05.
Rape: Mens Rea
591
33.06.
Marital Immunity Rule
593
A.
Immunity and Its Rationales
593
1.
Rule
593
2.
Rationales
593
a.
Consent/Property Rationale
593
b.
Protection of the Marriage
593
c.
Protection of the Husband in Divorce Proceedings
594
d.
Less Serious Harm
594
B.
Breakdown of the Rule
595
33.07.
Proving Rape At Trial
595
A.
Corroboration Rule and Cautionary Jury Instructions
595
B.
Rape-Shield Statutes
597
33.08.
Model Penal Code
599
A.
Sex Offenses, In General
599
B.
Rape
599
1.
General
599
2.
Comparison to Common Law
600
C.
Gross Sexual Imposition
601
D.
Proving a Sexual Offense
601
E.
MPC Sexual Offense Laws in Transition?
602
Table of Cases
TC-1
Table of Statutes
TS-1
Index
I-1